Table 4: Data extraction table.

No Authors Title Population size Study design Country Defintion of parenting/parenting style and knowledge of child development Knowledge fof child development Parenting Measuring tool used to collect data Relationship between knowledge of child development and parenting/parenting styles
1 Arnott & Brown, 2013 An Exploration of Parenting Behaviours and Attitudes During Early Infancy: Association with Maternal and Infant Characteristics 508 mothers with children under age 12 months Cross-sectional study United Kingdom The parenting style theoretical literature for older children traditionally conceptualizes parenting warmth/nurturing Factor analysis study and found that nurturance and control strongly emerged. Mothers high in nurturance would cuddle their child instead of leaving the child to settle and mothers high in routine would adhere to sticking to strict routine for their baby. Also mothers high on the discipline factor believed that they had to modify their child’s behaviour and were not particularly swayed by their infants for e.g. believing that crying was used to manipulate them Infancy Parenting Styles Questionnaire Early parenting style was associated with maternal age and education, and infant birth weight, gender and age
2 Winter, Morawska & Sanders, 2011 The Effect of Behavioral Family Intervention on Knowledge of Effective Parenting Strategies 91 parents 44 mothers and 47 fathers-children between 2-10 Intervention study Queensland Pre intervention parents in the higher socio-economic status group were found to have greater knowledge of child development. However, post parenting intervention parental knowledge and confidence was increased in both low and high socio-economic groups. SES of parents, the index of relative socioeconomic advantage and disadvantage (based on participant post codes) was obtained from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006), Knowledge of Effective Parenting Scale (KEPS; Morawska et al. 2007), The Eyberg Child behavior Inventory (ECBI; Eyberg and Pincus 1999), Parenting Scale (PS; Arnold et al. 1993), The Parenting Tasks Checklist (PTC; Sanders and Woolley 2005) Relative to baseline, parents in both groups significantly improved their knowledge and confidence, reduced their dysfunction and reported less externalised child behavior. Effect sizes for the latter two variables were similar for both groups, however for parents higher in education the effect for confidence was larger than knowledge. Change in level of dysfunction explained the largest amount of unique variance in change to externalised child behavior
3 Pevalin, Wade & Brannigan, 2003 Parental Assessment of Early Childhood Development: Biological and Social Covariates 8605 children 4696 between 0-23months 3909 between 24-47 months Population study Canada Parental depression and hostile parenting were not found to have significant effects contrary to previous findings. Further parental depression suggests an impediment to optimal parenting practices but the models included direct measures of parenting and in their presence the effect of depression became non-significant. Therefore, the effects of depression appear to operate through resultant parenting practices The motor and social development scale (MSD) was developed at the US National Center for Health Statistics and designed as a general measure of early child development for use in large, population-based surveys conducted by lay interviewers The results suggest that the cumulative effects of a positive family environment begin to occlude the neonatal disadvantages in the first 47 months of life
4 Morawska & Sanders, 2007 Concurrent predictors of dysfunctional parenting and maternal confidence: implications for parenting interventions 126 families children between 18-36 months Cross-sectional study Queensland Parenting confidence or self-efficacy is generally defined as the perception that one can effectively manage tasks related to parenting (Teti & Gelfand 1991) Do not specifically focus on parental knowledge they do investigate confidence which has been found to be dependent on parental knowledge. The study results showed that parents often did not know what to do when children threw tantrums, that their parenting style affects child behaviour and they also did not know about setting limits Maternal confidence and dysfunctional parenting were interrelated and were also predicted best by parenting variables, in contrast to socio-demographic and child variables. Maternal confidence also mediated the relationships between family income and toddler behaviour. Parenting style and confidence are important modifiable factors to target in parenting interventions Toddler behaviour was assessed using the Eyberg Child Behaviour Inventory (ECBI; Eyberg & Pincus 1999), The Parenting Scale (PS; Arnold et al. 1993) is a 30-item self-report, Likert-style questionnaire measuring three dysfunctional discipline styles, Toddler Care Questionnaire (TCQ;Gross & Rocissano 1988), The Parental Anger Inventory (PAI; Hansen & Sedlar 1998, The Parent Problem Checklist (PPC; Dadds & Powell 1991), The Relationship Quality Index (RQI; Norton 1983), The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (Lovibond & Lovibond 1995) The study found that maternal confidence and dysfunctional parenting were interrelated and were also predicted best by parenting variables, in contrast to socio-demographic and child variables.Maternal confidence also mediated the relationships between family income and toddler behaviour
5 Hess, Teti & Hussey-Gardner, 2004 Self-efficacy and parenting of high-risk infants: The moderating role of parent knowledge of infant development 65 mothers Longitudinal intervention study Baltimore, USA Parental self-efficacy is defined as beliefs or judgments about one’s competency or ability to be successful in the parenting role Participants scored an average of 82.87% and indicated that the scores were relatively high. Further the study stated that mothers with higher education and income and who were married had greater knowledge than mothers who had lower education, lower income and were unmarried. The study also found that those having greater knowledge of child development were more sensitive to their children. Also the study found that Caucasian mothers had greater knowledge than African American mothers Mothers with higher education, higher income and married were more responsive to their children than less educated, lower income and unmarried mothers. The study found that parent confidence was high but suggests that naively confident mothers may be at risk for parenting difficulties as their children grow into toddlers The 10-item Maternal Self-Efficacy Scale (Teti & Gelfand, 1991. Sense of Competence subscale of the Parenting Stress Index (Abidin, 1986). Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory (KIDI; MacPhee, 1981) There were no independent contributions of parental self-efficacy or parent knowledge of development in predicting parenting competence. However, the relation between parental self-efficacy and parenting competence was moderated by parent knowledge of development. By contrast, parental self-efficacy beliefs and parenting competence were inversely associated when knowledge of development was low. Mothers reporting high parental self-efficacy,but low knowledge of development, were the least sensitive with their infants in play interactions, suggesting that these mothers were naively confident about their parenting abilities
6 Oncu & Unluer, 2012 Parent s’ Attitude Towards Their Children Before and After Parental Education 41 parents 18 mother 8 fathers of children between 3-6 years Intervention study Turkey According to Darling (1999), parenting consists of complex duties and responsibilities in which mother and/or father has to decide how to organize and guide their son/daughter Mothers were found to restrict father involvement. Subsequently, both mothers and fathers were found to score high in protective and discipline dimensions with fathers scoring higher in these dimensions and being more protective The Parental Attitude Research Instrument (PARI) was used as a tool for evaluation of parent attitudes before and after the education Especially there seemed to be a little but, positive effect on the dimensions of protective parenting, and pressure and discipline dimensions
7 Bornstein & Putnick, 2007 Chronological Age, Cognitions, and Practices in European American Mothers: A Multivariate Study of Parenting 262 mothers of 20month old babies Longitudinal study USA Degree of knowledge varied according to age and found that older mothers were more knowledgeable than younger mothers. However, the difference was not that significant and stated that there is few empirical evidence to support that maternal age affects knowledge and that there may be other factors that influence knowledge apart from SES and education Self-Perceptions of the Parental Role (SPPR; MacPhee, Benson, & Bullock, 1986). The SPPR draws on social psychological theories of self-esteem (Harter, 1983). The Parental Style Questionnaire (PSQ; Bornstein et al., 1996) was constructed to index variation in different domains of parenting behavior (see Bornstein, 2002). The Parent Attributions Questionnaire (MacPhee, Seybold, & Fritz, n.d.; Sirignano & Lachman, 1985). The Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory (KIDI; MacPhee, 1981) Maternal chronological age appears to be a pervasive factor in parenting. Overall, we found that maternal age per se was related to approximately one half of the diverse maternal cognitions we assessed and to approximately one half of the diverse maternal practices we evaluated, including all categories of parenting cognitions (perceptions, reports, attributions, and knowledge) as wellas maternal language and emotional interactions. Maternal age was more strongly related to parenting cognitions and practices inyounger than in older mothers, however
8 Winsler, Madigan, Aquilano, 2005 Correspondence between maternal and paternal parenting styles in early childhood 56 parents of 28 pre school children Intervention study USA Reported that pre intervention parents in the higher socio-economic status group were found to have greater knowledge of child development. However, post parenting intervention parental knowledge and confidence was increased in both low and high socio-economic groups Fathers perceived their spouses to be more authoritative followed by permissive whereas mothers perceived their spouses as more authoritative. Further it was found that parents who share similar parenting styles were able to report accurately on their spouses parenting styles. The study concluded that corresponding parenting styles in the same home were important Preschool children independently completed the parenting styles and dimensions questionnaire (PSDQ) [Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Frost Olsen, S., & Hart, C. H. (2001) Results reveal only modest similarity in parenting styles used by two parents within the same home. Permissive (and to a lesser extent, authoritarian) parenting was somewhat positively associated across parents but no cross-informant association was found for authoritative parenting. Fathers perceive their spouses to be more authoritative, more permissive, and less authoritarian than themselves, whereas mothers only perceive themselves to be more authoritative than fathers. Parents who share similar parenting styles are more accurate at reporting on their spouses’ parenting styles than are parents with differing styles. Correspondence in parenting style across both parents in the home is important as are parental perceptions of similarity and differences in styles