Fig. (1) Major hemodynamic stresses exerted on vascular wall cells. Pressure and stress are defined as force per unit area. ‘Shear’ stress, such as fluid-wall shear stress (WSS), acts parallel to the area and ‘normal’ stress, such as blood pressure, acts perpendicularly to the area. Cells in the wall also experience circumferential wall stress. This figure was initially published in Kidney International by Nature Publishing Group [33].