The Open Nutrition Journal




(Discontinued)

ISSN: 1874-2882 ― Volume 15, 2021
REVIEW ARTICLE

Dietary Fatty Acids and Cancer



Howard P. Glauert1, *
1 Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA

Abstract

In this review, the influence of dietary fat on the development of cancer is discussed. In epidemiological studies, a relationship between dietary fat and breast cancer has been found in correlational studies, but prospective studies do not support a role for dietary fat. Prospective epidemiological studies examining the role of dietary fat in the development of colon, pancreatic, and prostate cancers have produced conflicting results. The Women’s Health Initiative intervention studies did not show any statistically significant effects of dietary fat on the development of either colon or breast cancer in women. In experimental studies, dietary fat generally enhances chemically-induced skin, liver, pancreatic, and mammary carcinogenesis, whereas conflicting results have been observed in colon carcinogenesis. Dietary fat appears to act primarily during the promotional stage of carcinogenesis in all of these models except the liver, where the effect of dietary fat is primarily on initiation.

Keywords: Fat, Cancer, Carcinogenesis, Epidemiological studies, Correlational studies, Dietary fat.


Article Information


Identifiers and Pagination:

Year: 2019
Volume: 13
First Page: 27
Last Page: 42
Publisher Id: TONUTRJ-13-27
DOI: 10.2174/1874288201913010027

Article History:

Received Date: 01/06/2019
Revision Received Date: 21/10/2019
Acceptance Date: 22/10/2019
Electronic publication date: 15/11/2019
Collection year: 2019

© 2019 Howard P. Glauert.

open-access license: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0), a copy of which is available at: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.


* Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, 521 CTW, 900 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0200, USA; Tel: +1-859-257-7789; Fax: 84 2273 847509; E-mail: hglauert@uky.edu





1. INTRODUCTION

Cancer is currently the second leading cause of death in the United States. It is estimated that about 1,762,000 people will be diagnosed with cancer in the United States in 2019 and that about 606,880 will die from it [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.]. One of the primary mechanisms for reducing cancer deaths is by altering the diet, and one proposed way is by decreasing the consumption of dietary fat. In this review, the role of dietary fat on the development of human and experimental cancer will be discussed. Because of the large number of studies published, reviews will be cited where possible. Relevant studies were identified using PubMed (U.S. National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD) and Google Scholar (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA).

Numerous epidemiological and experimental animal studies have examined the effect of dietary fat on human cancer. Several correlational studies have noted an increase in the rates of colon, breast, and other cancers in areas where dietary fat consumption is high [2Fraser D. Nutrition and cancer: epidemiological aspects. Public Health Rev 1996; 24(2): 113-21.
[PMID: 8918179]
]. Additionally, studies with immigrant populations have identified dietary fat intake as a causative factor in the development of these cancers [2Fraser D. Nutrition and cancer: epidemiological aspects. Public Health Rev 1996; 24(2): 113-21.
[PMID: 8918179]
].

2. COLON CANCER

Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of death from cancer in both men and women. An estimated 145,000 cases will be diagnosed in 2019, and 51,000 people will die from it [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.]. Epidemiological studies have not reached a clear consensus about the influence of dietary fat. Case-control studies overall have not found a positive association with dietary fat, although many have observed a positive association with meat intake [3Kushi L, Giovannucci E. Dietary fat and cancer. Am J Med 2002; 113(Suppl. 9B): 63S-70S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00994-9] [PMID: 125661 41]
]. Prospective epidemiological studies have conflicting results (Table 1): some studies found a positive association [4Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Relation of meat, fat, and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women. N Engl J Med 1990; 323(24): 1664-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199012133232404] [PMID: 21728 20]
-7Butler LM, Wang R, Koh WP, Stern MC, Yuan JM, Yu MC. Marine n-3 and saturated fatty acids in relation to risk of colorectal cancer in Singapore Chinese: A prospective study. Int J Cancer 2009; 124(3): 678-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.23950] [PMID: 18973226]
], others saw no effect [8Garland C, Shekelle RB, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Rossof AH, Paul O. Dietary vitamin D and calcium and risk of colorectal cancer: A 19-year prospective study in men. Lancet 1985; 1(8424): 307-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)91082-7] [PMID: 2857364]
-25Dahm CC, Keogh RH, Lentjes MA, et al. Intake of dietary fats and colorectal cancer risk: Prospective findings from the UK Dietary Cohort Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol 2010; 34(5): 562-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2010.07.008] [PMID: 20702156]
], and others saw an actual protective effect of high fat intakes [26Hirayama T. A large-scale cohort study on the relationship between diet and selected cancers of digestive organs.Gastrointestinal Cancer: Endogenous Factors 1981; 409-29. [Banbury Report 7]-28Chyou PH, Nomura AM, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of colon and rectal cancer among Hawaii Japanese men. Ann Epidemiol 1996; 6(4): 276-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(96)00047-6] [PMID: 8876837]
]. In several of these studies, the consumption of red meat was found to be significantly correlated with colon cancer risk, but independent of fat intake. The International Agency for Research on Cancer recently classified red meat as probably carcinogenic to humans and processed meat as carcinogenic to humans, with the colon being the main target organ [29Bouvard V, Loomis D, Guyton KZ, et al. International agency for research on cancer monograph working G. carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. Lancet Oncol 2015.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00444-1]
, 30IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. 2018.]. In the Women’s Health Initiative intervention study published in 2006 [31Beresford SA, Johnson KC, Ritenbaugh C, et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of colorectal cancer: The women’s health initiative randomized controlled dietary modification trial. JAMA 2006; 295(6): 643-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.6.643] [PMID: 16467233]
], 19,500 women lowered their fat intake by about 10% compared to 29,000 women who did not alter their diet, for a follow-up period that averaged 8 years. The intervention group had a higher relative risk of 1.08, which was not statistically significant, indicating that a diet lower in fat did not inhibit the development of colon cancer in this study.

Studies in experimental animals have produced differing results. A variety of chemicals have been used to induce colon tumors, usually in rats or mice. These include 1,2-dimethylhydrazine [DMH] and its metabolites azoxymethane [AOM] and methylazoxymethanol [MAM]; 3,2'-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl [DMAB]; methylnitrosourea [MNU]; and N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine [MNNG] [32Druckrey H. Production of colonic carcinomas by 1,2-dialkyhydrazines and azoalkanes.Carcinoma of the Colon and Antecedent Epithelium 1970; 267-78.-35Rogers AE, Nauss KM. Rodent models for carcinoma of the colon. Dig Dis Sci 1985; 30(12)(Suppl.): 87S-102S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01296986] [PMID: 2998716]
]. DMH and AOM have been used most frequently to study nutritional effects. Both can induce colon tumors by single [36Ward JM. Dose response to a single injection of azoxymethane in rats. Induction of tumors in the gastrointestinal tract, auditory sebaceous glands, kidney, liver and preputial gland. Vet Pathol 1975; 12(3): 165-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030098587501200302] [PMID: 173070]
-40Karkare MR, Clark TD, Glauert HP. Effect of dietary calcium on colon carcinogenesis induced by a single injection of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine in rats. J Nutr 1991; 121(4): 568-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/121.4.568] [PMID: 2007910]
] or multiple [41Reddy BS, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effects of dietary fat level and dimethylhydrazine on fecal acid and neutral sterol excretion and colon carcinogenesis in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 52(2): 507-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/52.2.507] [PMID: 4816006]
-45Sakaguchi M, Minoura T, Hiramatsu Y, et al. Effects of dietary saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on fecal bile acids and colon carcinogenesis induced by azoxymethane in rats. Cancer Res 1986; 46(1): 61-5.
[PMID: 3940210]
] injections. The Min mouse, which has a mutation in the mouse homolog of the Adenomatous Polyposis Coli [APC] gene, develops small intestinal and colon tumors spontaneously and has been used as a model of colon carcinogenesis [46Thompson MB. The Min mouse: A genetic model for intestinal carcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 1997; 25(3): 329-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019262339702500312] [PMID: 9210266]
]. Mice with mutations at other locations of the APC gene have also been developed [47Tammariello AE, Milner JA. Mouse models for unraveling the importance of diet in colon cancer prevention. J Nutr Biochem 2010; 21(2): 77-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.09.014] [PMID: 20122631]
]. In addition to tumors, putative preneoplastic lesions, Aberrant Crypt Foci [ACF], are induced by colon carcinogens [48Bird RP. Observation and quantification of aberrant crypts in the murine colon treated with a colon carcinogen: Preliminary findings. Cancer Lett 1987; 37(2): 147-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(87)90157-1] [PMID: 3677050]
]. ACF, which are identified by fixing the colon in formalin and then staining with methylene blue, are stained darker and are larger than normal crypts [48Bird RP. Observation and quantification of aberrant crypts in the murine colon treated with a colon carcinogen: Preliminary findings. Cancer Lett 1987; 37(2): 147-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(87)90157-1] [PMID: 3677050]
]. Some but not all studies have shown that ACF correlate well with the later appearance of adenocarcinomas [49Hardman WE, Heitman DW, Cameron IL. Suppression of the progression of 1,2 dimethylhydrazine [DMH] induced colon carcinogenesis by 20% dietary corn oil in rats supplemented with dietary pectin. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 1991; 32(1): 131.-52Alrawi SJ, Schiff M, Carroll RE, et al. Aberrant crypt foci. Anticancer Res 2006; 26(1A): 107-19.
[PMID: 16475686]
].

Animal studies examining the effect of dietary fat have used a variety of protocols, and the results obtained often have been dependent on the investigator's protocol. In these studies, rats or mice were subjected to multiple doses of a colon carcinogen, with the dietary fat content being varied isocalorically during, and frequently before or after, the carcinogen injections. Some of these studies found an enhancement when the dietary fat content of the diet was increased, but others saw no effect or even an inhibition of tumor development [43Glauert HP, Bennink MR, Sander CH. Enhancement of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis in mice by dietary agar. Food Cosmet Toxicol 1981; 19(3): 281-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0015-6264(81)90385-0] [PMID: 6266936]
, 53Guillem JG, Hsieh LL, O’Toole KM, Forde KA, LoGerfo P, Weinstein IB. Changes in expression of oncogenes and endogenous retroviral-like sequences during colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1988; 48(14): 3964-71.
[PMID: 3383191]
-62Park SY, Kim JS, Seo YR, Sung MK. Effects of diet-induced obesity on colitis-associated colon tumor formation in A/J mice. Int J Obes 2012; 36(2): 273-80. [Lond].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2011.83] [PMID: 21544082]
]. High-fat diets were found to influence the early stages of carcinogenesis more than the later stages [63Bird RP, Yao K, Lasko CM, Good CK. Inability of low- or high-fat diet to modulate late stages of colon carcinogenesis in Sprague-Dawley rats. Cancer Res 1996; 56(13): 2896-9.
[PMID: 8674035]
]. In several studies where fat was found to enhance colon carcinogenesis, fat was either added to an unrefined [chow] diet or was substituted for carbohydrate on a weight basis, so that the ratio of calories to essential nutrients was altered; therefore the effect could have been due to a lower consumption of essential nutrients rather than to an effect of fat [41Reddy BS, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effects of dietary fat level and dimethylhydrazine on fecal acid and neutral sterol excretion and colon carcinogenesis in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 52(2): 507-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/52.2.507] [PMID: 4816006]
, 42Bull AW, Soullier BK, Wilson PS, Hayden MT, Nigro ND. Promotion of azoxymethane-induced intestinal cancer by high-fat diet in rats. Cancer Res 1979; 39(12): 4956-9.
[PMID: 498120]
, 64Reddy BS, Narisawa T, Vukusich D, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effect of quality and quantity of dietary fat and dimethylhydrazine in colon carcinogenesis in rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1976; 151(2): 237-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/00379727-151-39181] [PMID: 1250864]
-70Fujise T, Iwakiri R, Kakimoto T, et al. Long-term feeding of various fat diets modulates azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis through Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007; 292(4): G1150-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00269.2006] [PMID: 17194898]
]. In the Min model, high-fat diets were found to increase colon carcinogenesis in two studies but not another [71Wasan HS, Novelli M, Bee J, Bodmer WF. Dietary fat influences on polyp phenotype in multiple intestinal neoplasia mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94(7): 3308-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.7.3308] [PMID: 9096389]
-73Pettan-Brewer C, Morton J, Mangalindan R, Ladiges W. Curcumin suppresses intestinal polyps in APC Min mice fed a high fat diet. Pathobiol Aging Age Relat Dis 2011; 1: 1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/pba.v1i0.7013] [PMID: 22953026]
]. Increasing the fat content of the diet has been found to increase the number of ACF induced by colon carcinogens in several but not all studies [61Rao CV, Hirose Y, Indranie C, Reddy BS. Modulation of experimental colon tumorigenesis by types and amounts of dietary fatty acids. Cancer Res 2001; 61(5): 1927-33.
[PMID: 11280748]
, 74Lafave LMZ, Kumarathasan P, Bird RP. Effect of dietary fat on colonic protein kinase C and induction of aberrant crypt foci. Lipids 1994; 29(10): 693-700.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02538913] [PMID: 7861936]
-84Choi SY, Park JH, Kim JS, Kim MK, Aruoma OI, Sung MK. Effects of quercetin and beta-carotene supplementation on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis and inflammatory responses in rats fed with high-fat diet rich in omega-6 fatty acids. Biofactors 2006; 27(1-4): 137-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biof.5520270112] [PMID: 17012770]
]. The type of fat unsaturated vs. saturated in the diet also produced conflicting results [59Takeshita M, Ueda H, Shirabe K, Higuchi Y, Yoshida S. Lack of promotion of colon carcinogenesis by high-oleic safflower oil. Cancer 1997; 79(8): 1487-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19970415)79:8<1487::AID-CNCR7>3.0.CO;2-8] [PMID: 9118028]
, 80Parnaud G, Peiffer G, Taché S, Corpet DE. Effect of meat (beef, chicken, and bacon) on rat colon carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1998; 32(3): 165-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589809514736] [PMID: 10050267]
, 85Sakaguchi M, Hiramatsu Y, Takada H, et al. Effect of dietary unsaturated and saturated fats on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats. Cancer Res 1984; 44(4): 1472-7.
[PMID: 6704963]
, 86Enos RT, Velázquez KT, McClellan JL, et al. High-fat diets rich in saturated fat protect against azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium-induced colon cancer. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2016; 310(11): G906-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00345.2015] [PMID: 27033117]
]. ω-3 fatty acids can also influence colon carcinogenesis: feeding fish oil, microalgal oil, or flaxseed oil in place of corn oil, or eicosapentaenoic acid in place of linoleic acid, decreases the development of DMH- or AOM-induced colon tumors, but adding menhaden oil to a low-fat diet does not affect colon carcinogenesis [61Rao CV, Hirose Y, Indranie C, Reddy BS. Modulation of experimental colon tumorigenesis by types and amounts of dietary fatty acids. Cancer Res 2001; 61(5): 1927-33.
[PMID: 11280748]
, 87Reddy BS, Maruyama H. Effect of dietary fish oil on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in male F344 rats. Cancer Res 1986; 46(7): 3367-70.
[PMID: 3708570]
-96van Beelen VA, Spenkelink B, Mooibroek H, et al. An n-3 PUFA-rich microalgal oil diet protects to a similar extent as a fish oil-rich diet against AOM-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci in F344 rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2009; 47(2): 316-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2008.11.014] [PMID: 19049816]
]. A transgenic model [fat-1 mouse] that has high endogenous levels of ω-3 fatty acids was found to have lower induction of colon tumors induced by AOM and dextrane sodium sulfate [97Nowak J, Weylandt KH, Habbel P, et al. Colitis-associated colon tumorigenesis is suppressed in transgenic mice rich in endogenous n-3 fatty acids. Carcinogenesis 2007; 28(9): 1991-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgm166] [PMID: 17634405]
]. Olive oil, which is high in ω-9 fatty acids, was also found to inhibit colon carcinogenesis when substituted for polyunsaturated fatty acids [92Bartolí R, Fernández-Bañares F, Navarro E, et al. Effect of olive oil on early and late events of colon carcinogenesis in rats: Modulation of arachidonic acid metabolism and local prostaglandin E(2) synthesis. Gut 2000; 46(2): 191-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.46.2.191] [PMID: 10644312]
].

Table 1
Dietary fat and colorectal cancer: Prospective studies.


Table 2
Dietary fat and breast cancer: Prospective studies.


Several mechanisms by which dietary fat may influence colon cancer have been proposed. Bile acids, particularly hydrophobic bile acids, have been proposed to play a role in colon carcinogenesis [98Debruyne PR, Bruyneel EA, Li XD, Zimber A, Gespach C, Mareel MM. The role of bile acids in carcinogenesis. Mutat Res Fundam Mol Mech Mut 2001; 2001(480): 359-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0027-5107(01)00195-6]
-100Di Ciaula A, Wang DQ, Molina-Molina E, et al. Bile acids and cancer: Direct and environmental-dependent effects. Ann Hepatol 2017; 16(Suppl. 1: s3-105): s87-s105.]. Bile acids, particularly secondary bile acids, have promoting activity in the colon [101Reddy BS, Narasawa T, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Promoting effect of sodium deoxycholate on colon adenocarcinomas in germfree rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1976; 56(2): 441-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/56.2.441] [PMID: 1255778]
-103Narisawa T, Magadia NE, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Promoting effect of bile acids on colon carcinogenesis after intrarectal instillation of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 53(4): 1093-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/53.4.1093] [PMID: 4427390]
]; their concentration in the feces has been found to be increased by dietary fat in some but not all studies [41Reddy BS, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effects of dietary fat level and dimethylhydrazine on fecal acid and neutral sterol excretion and colon carcinogenesis in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 52(2): 507-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/52.2.507] [PMID: 4816006]
, 104Reddy BS, Mangat S, Sheinfil A, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effect of type and amount of dietary fat and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine on biliary bile acids, fecal bile acids, and neutral sterols in rats. Cancer Res 1977; 37(7 Pt 1): 2132-7.
[PMID: 861940]
-107Gallaher DD, Franz PM. Effects of corn oil and wheat brans on bile acid metabolism in rats. J Nutr 1990; 120(11): 1320-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/120.11.1320] [PMID: 2172490]
]. Effects on the colon microbiome could also play a role in the development of colon cancer [108O’Keefe SJ. Diet, microorganisms and their metabolites, and colon cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016; 13(12): 691-706.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2016.165] [PMID: 27848961]
].

3. BREAST CANCER

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in women. An estimated 271,000 cases will be diagnosed in 2019, and 42,000 people will die from it [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.].

Numerous epidemiological studies have attempted to identify factors which influence breast cancer risk in humans. Established breast cancer risk factors include age of first pregnancy, body mass index, age at menarche or menopause, and family history of breast cancer [109Barnard ME, Boeke CE, Tamimi RM. Established breast cancer risk factors and risk of intrinsic tumor subtypes. Biochim Biophys Acta 2015; 1856(1): 73-85.
[PMID: 26071880]
]. The effect of dietary fat has been studied in correlational, case-control, and prospective epidemiological studies. Studies examining international correlations between dietary fat intake and breast cancer risk, and migrant studies have reported a positive association between dietary fat intake and breast cancer risk [110Kelsey JL, Berkowitz GS. Breast cancer epidemiology. Cancer Res 1988; 48(20): 5615-23.
[PMID: 3048646]
]. A meta-analysis of 27 case-control studies found no significant association between breast cancer risk and saturated fat intake [111Turner LB. A meta-analysis of fat intake, reproduction, and breast cancer risk: An evolutionary perspective. Am J Hum Biol 2011; 23(5): 601-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21176] [PMID: 21681848]
]. Most prospective studies did not find any link between total dietary fat intake and the development of breast cancer [112Jones DY, Schatzkin A, Green SB, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I. Epidemiological followup study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987; 79(3): 465-71.
[PMID: 3476789]
-143Murff HJ, Shu XO, Li H, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in Chinese women: A prospective cohort study. Int J Cancer 2011; 128(6): 1434-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25703] [PMID: 20878979]
] (Table 2). Furthermore, a combined analysis of many of these prospective studies did not find any evidence of a link between total dietary fat intake and breast cancer risk, although an elevated risk was observed with higher consumption of polyunsaturated fat [111Turner LB. A meta-analysis of fat intake, reproduction, and breast cancer risk: An evolutionary perspective. Am J Hum Biol 2011; 23(5): 601-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21176] [PMID: 21681848]
]. The Women’s Health Initiative intervention study [described in the preceding section on colon cancer] examined the effect of low-fat diets on the development of breast cancer [144Prentice RL, Caan B, Chlebowski RT, et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of invasive breast cancer: The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 2006; 295(6): 629-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.6.629] [PMID: 16467232]
]. Although dietary fat did not significantly affect the development of breast cancer, there was a relative risk of 0.91 in the low-fat intervention group.

The effect of dietary fat on mammary carcinogenesis in experimental animals has been examined extensively: over 100 experiments have been conducted [145Freedman LS, Clifford C, Messina M. Analysis of dietary fat, calories, body weight, and the development of mammary tumors in rats and mice: A review. Cancer Res 1990; 50(18): 5710-9.
[PMID: 2203521]
-148Cranford TL, Velazquez KT, Enos RT, et al. Effects of high fat diet-induced obesity on mammary tumorigenesis in the PyMT/MMTV murine model. Cancer Biol Ther 2018; 1-10.
[PMID: 30388923]
]. The primary model used is a rat model [usually the Sprague-Dawley strain] in which mammary tumors are induced by DMBA or MNU. Genetically-engineered models have also been developed, including models in which the Erbb2 gene or simian virus 40 [SV40] T/t-antigens are overexpressed in mammary epithelial cells [149Green JE, Hudson T. The promise of genetically engineered mice for cancer prevention studies. Nat Rev Cancer 2005; 5(3): 184-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc1565] [PMID: 15738982]
]. The use of these animal models is advantageous because tumor latency, tumor size, and tumor progression can easily be quantified by palpation of mammary tumors as they appear. Increasing the fat content of the diet clearly enhances the development of mammary tumors [145Freedman LS, Clifford C, Messina M. Analysis of dietary fat, calories, body weight, and the development of mammary tumors in rats and mice: A review. Cancer Res 1990; 50(18): 5710-9.
[PMID: 2203521]
-147Fay MP, Freedman LS, Clifford CK, Midthune DN. Effect of different types and amounts of fat on the development of mammary tumors in rodents: A review. Cancer Res 1997; 57(18): 3979-88.
[PMID: 9307282]
]. In the rat model, a high-fat diet increases tumorigenesis both when it is fed during and after carcinogen administration, and when it is fed only after carcinogen injection. More recent studies have examined the role of high-fat diets fed before and/or during gestation, and/or during lactation, or during puberty on mammary carcinogenesis in the offspring. Increasing the level of unsaturated fat (e.g. corn oil) during gestation and lactation increased the number of mammary tumors developing in the offspring, whereas monounsaturated fat olive oil had less of an effect, and saturated fat lard produced conflicting results [150Stark AH, Kossoy G, Zusman I, Yarden G, Madar Z. Olive oil consumption during pregnancy and lactation in rats influences mammary cancer development in female offspring. Nutr Cancer 2003; 46(1): 59-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327914NC4601_08] [PMID: 12925305]
-153Montales MT, Melnyk SB, Simmen FA, Simmen RC. Maternal metabolic perturbations elicited by high-fat diet promote Wnt-1-induced mammary tumor risk in adult female offspring via long-term effects on mammary and systemic phenotypes. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35(9): 2102-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgu106] [PMID: 24832086]
]. Feeding high-fat diets during puberty was sufficient to enhance mammary carcinogenesis [154Zhao Y, Tan YS, Aupperlee MD, et al. Pubertal high fat diet: Effects on mammary cancer development. Breast Cancer Res 2013; 15(5): R100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/bcr3561] [PMID: 24156623]
, 155Aupperlee MD, Zhao Y, Tan YS, et al. Puberty-specific promotion of mammary tumorigenesis by a high animal fat diet. Breast Cancer Res 2015; 17(1): 138.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13058-015-0646-4] [PMID: 26526858]
]. Feeding a diet high n-3 fatty acids decreases experimental mammary carcinogenesis in experimental animals [145Freedman LS, Clifford C, Messina M. Analysis of dietary fat, calories, body weight, and the development of mammary tumors in rats and mice: A review. Cancer Res 1990; 50(18): 5710-9.
[PMID: 2203521]
-147Fay MP, Freedman LS, Clifford CK, Midthune DN. Effect of different types and amounts of fat on the development of mammary tumors in rodents: A review. Cancer Res 1997; 57(18): 3979-88.
[PMID: 9307282]
, 156MacLennan MB, Clarke SE, Perez K, et al. Mammary tumor development is directly inhibited by lifelong n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr Biochem 2013; 24(1): 388-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2012.08.002] [PMID: 23026490]
-158Liu J, Ma DW. The role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the prevention and treatment of breast cancer. Nutrients 2014; 6(11): 5184-223.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu6115184] [PMID: 25412153]
]. A meta-analysis of experimental animal studies found that n-6 fatty acids strongly enhanced carcinogenesis, saturated fatty acids were weaker at enhancing carcinogenesis, monounsaturated fatty acids had no effect, and n-3 fatty acids weakly but non-significantly inhibited carcinogenesis [147Fay MP, Freedman LS, Clifford CK, Midthune DN. Effect of different types and amounts of fat on the development of mammary tumors in rodents: A review. Cancer Res 1997; 57(18): 3979-88.
[PMID: 9307282]
].

4. PANCREATIC CANCER

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of death from cancer in both men and women. An estimated 56,000 cases will be diagnosed in 2019, and 45,000 people will die from it [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.].

For the pancreas, international comparisons do not show as strong of a trend as with colon or breast cancer [159Howe GR, Burch JD. Nutrition and pancreatic cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996; 7(1): 69-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00115639] [PMID: 8850436]
]. Overall, neither case-control nor prospective studies that examined total fat intakes observed an effect [160Shen QW, Yao QY. Total fat consumption and pancreatic cancer risk: A meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Eur J Cancer Prev 2015; 24(4): 278-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000073] [PMID: 25089377]
]. However, diets high in polyunsaturated fat were found to have an inverse association in a meta-analysis, whereas diets high in saturated fatty acids or monounsaturated fatty acids had no effect [161Yao X, Tian Z. Saturated, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Intake and Risk of Pancreatic Cancer: Evidence from Observational Studies. PLoS One 2015; 10(6)e0130870
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130870] [PMID: 26110621]
]. Studies examining the consumption of cholesterol tend to show a positive correlation, however [162Chen H, Qin S, Wang M, Zhang T, Zhang S. Association between cholesterol intake and pancreatic cancer risk: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 8243.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep08243] [PMID: 25649888]
, 163Wang J, Wang WJ, Zhai L, Zhang DF. Association of cholesterol with risk of pancreatic cancer: A meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21(12): 3711-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.i12.3711] [PMID: 25834340]
]. Several prospective studies have examined the relationship of meat consumption with pancreatic cancer; a meta-analysis of these studies observed a positive association [164Larsson SC, Wolk A. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Cancer 2012; 106(3): 603-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2011.585] [PMID: 22240790]
].

Dietary fat has been studied extensively in animal models of pancreatic cancer. A common model is induction of pancreatic tumors by azaserine; however, azaserine produces tumors in acinar cells [165Grippo PJ, Sandgren EP. Modeling pancreatic cancer in animals to address specific hypotheses.2005.], whereas the primary site in humans is the ductal cell. Tumors can be produced in pancreatic ductal cells in rats, by DMBA [166Jimenez RE, Z’graggen K, Hartwig W, Graeme-Cook F, Warshaw AL, Fernandez-del Castillo C. Immunohistochemical characterization of pancreatic tumors induced by dimethylbenzanthracene in rats. Am J Pathol 1999; 154(4): 1223-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65374-6] [PMID: 10233860]
], or in hamsters, by the chemicals N-nitroso-bis-[2-oxypropyl]amine [BOP] and N-nitroso-bis-[2-hydroxypropyl]amine [BHP] [165Grippo PJ, Sandgren EP. Modeling pancreatic cancer in animals to address specific hypotheses.2005.]. A number of transgenic models have been developed [165Grippo PJ, Sandgren EP. Modeling pancreatic cancer in animals to address specific hypotheses.2005., 167Leach SD. Mouse models of pancreatic cancer: The fur is finally flying! Cancer Cell 2004; 5(1): 7-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00337-4] [PMID: 14749121]
]. A number of models used regulatory elements from the rat elastase gene, which targets acinar cells. These constructs produced acinar tumors or mixed acinar/ductal tumors [165Grippo PJ, Sandgren EP. Modeling pancreatic cancer in animals to address specific hypotheses.2005., 167Leach SD. Mouse models of pancreatic cancer: The fur is finally flying! Cancer Cell 2004; 5(1): 7-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00337-4] [PMID: 14749121]
]. Another model uses an oncogenic K-ras [KRASG12D] inserted into the endogenous K-ras locus [168Hingorani SR, Petricoin EF, Maitra A, et al. Preinvasive and invasive ductal pancreatic cancer and its early detection in the mouse. Cancer Cell 2003; 4(6): 437-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00309-X] [PMID: 14706336]
]. The gene has a Lox-STOP-Lox [LSL] construct inserted upstream. These mice are interbred with mice containing the Cre recombinase downstream from a pancreatic specific promoter, either PDX-1 or P48. The PDX-1-Cre;LSL-KRASG12D mice develop pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia [PanINs], which progress over time [168Hingorani SR, Petricoin EF, Maitra A, et al. Preinvasive and invasive ductal pancreatic cancer and its early detection in the mouse. Cancer Cell 2003; 4(6): 437-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00309-X] [PMID: 14706336]
]. In addition, when these mice are crossed to mice containing p53 mutations or Ink4a/Arf deficiency, the rapid development of pancreatic adenocarcinomas is observed [169Hingorani SR, Wang L, Multani AS, et al. Trp53R172H and KrasG12D cooperate to promote chromosomal instability and widely metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma in mice. Cancer Cell 2005; 7(5): 469-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2005.04.023] [PMID: 15894267]
, 170Aguirre AJ, Bardeesy N, Sinha M, et al. Activated Kras and Ink4a/Arf deficiency cooperate to produce metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Genes Dev 2003; 17(24): 3112-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gad.1158703] [PMID: 14681207]
].

Dietary fat has been found to influence tumorigenesis in mice, rats, and hamsters. In rats, feeding high-fat diets after, or during and after, the injection of azaserine enhances the development of pancreatic tumors and putative preneoplastic lesions [171Roebuck BD, Yager JD Jr, Longnecker DS. Dietary modulation of azaserine-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis in the rat. Cancer Res 1981; 41(3): 888-93.
[PMID: 7459874]
-179Woutersen RA, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Bax J, Scherer E. Modulation of dietary fat-promoted pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters by chronic coffee ingestion. Carcinogenesis 1989; 10(2): 311-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/10.2.311] [PMID: 2643485]
]. Pancreatic carcinogenesis induced in rats by N-nitroso[2-hydroxypropyl][2-oxopropyl]amine [180Longnecker DS, Roebuck BD, Kuhlmann ET. Enhancement of pancreatic carcinogenesis by a dietary unsaturated fat in rats treated with saline or N-nitroso(2-hydroxypropyl)(2-oxopropyl)amine. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 74(1): 219-22.
[PMID: 3871493]
] or by DMBA [181Z’graggen K, Warshaw AL, Werner J, Graeme-Cook F, Jimenez RE, Fernández-Del Castillo C. Promoting effect of a high-fat/high-protein diet in DMBA-induced ductal pancreatic cancer in rats. Ann Surg 2001; 233(5): 688-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000658-200105000-00013] [PMID: 11323507]
] is also enhanced by feeding high-fat diets. In hamsters, BOP-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis is also increased by feeding high-fat diets [177Woutersen RA, van Garderen-Hoetmer A. Inhibition of dietary fat-promoted development of (pre)neoplastic lesions in exocrine pancreas of rats and hamsters by supplemental vitamins A, C and E. Cancer Lett 1988; 41(2): 179-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(88)90114-0] [PMID: 3401841]
-179Woutersen RA, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Bax J, Scherer E. Modulation of dietary fat-promoted pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters by chronic coffee ingestion. Carcinogenesis 1989; 10(2): 311-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/10.2.311] [PMID: 2643485]
, 182Birt DF, Salmasi S, Pour PM. Enhancement of experimental pancreatic cancer in Syrian golden hamsters by dietary fat. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981; 67(6): 1327-32.
[PMID: 6273636]
-186Herrington MK, Gasslander T, Cina RA, et al. Effects of high-fat diet and cholecystokinin receptor blockade on promotion of pancreatic ductal cell tumors in the hamster. Nutr Cancer 1997; 28(3): 219-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589709514580] [PMID: 9343829]
]. Roebuck and colleagues [171Roebuck BD, Yager JD Jr, Longnecker DS. Dietary modulation of azaserine-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis in the rat. Cancer Res 1981; 41(3): 888-93.
[PMID: 7459874]
, 173Roebuck BD, Longnecker DS, Baumgartner KJ, Thron CD. Carcinogen-induced lesions in the rat pancreas: Effects of varying levels of essential fatty acid. Cancer Res 1985; 45(11 Pt 1): 5252-6.
[PMID: 3876880]
, 176Roebuck BD. Effects of high levels of dietary fats on the growth of azaserine-induced foci in the rat pancreas. Lipids 1986; 21(4): 281-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02536413] [PMID: 3487020]
] found that polyunsaturated fat, but not saturated fat, enhanced pancreatic carcinogenesis, and that a certain level of essential fatty acids is required for the enhancement of pancreatic carcinogenesis. Increased linoleic acid was also found to increase metastases to the liver in hamsters [187Wenger FA, Jacobi CA, Kilian M, Zieren J, Zieren HU, Müller JM. Does dietary alpha-linolenic acid promote liver metastases in pancreatic carcinoma initiated by BOP in Syrian hamster? Ann Nutr Metab 1999; 43(2): 121-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000012776] [PMID: 10436311]
]. Appel et al. [188Appel MJ, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Woutersen RA. Effects of dietary linoleic acid on pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters. Cancer Res 1994; 54(8): 2113-20.
[PMID: 8174115]
], however, found that increasing the linoleic acid content of the diet did not increase pancreatic carcinogenesis in either rats or hamsters. Birt et al. [185Birt DF, Julius AD, Dwork E, Hanna T, White LT, Pour PM. Comparison of the effects of dietary beef tallow and corn oil on pancreatic carcinogenesis in the hamster model. Carcinogenesis 1990; 11(5): 745-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/11.5.745] [PMID: 2335005]
] found that feeding a saturated fat [beef tallow] enhanced pancreatic carcinogenesis in hamsters greater than a polyunsaturated fat [corn oil]. In transgenic models, increasing dietary corn oil led to a higher incidence and size of pancreatic ductal neoplasia in elastase-Kras mice [189Cheon EC, Strouch MJ, Barron MR, et al. Alteration of strain background and a high omega-6 fat diet induces earlier onset of pancreatic neoplasia in EL-Kras transgenic mice. Int J Cancer 2011; 128(12): 2783-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25622] [PMID: 20725998]
] and in PDX-1-Cre;LSL-KRASG12D mice [190Dawson DW, Hertzer K, Moro A, et al. High-fat, high-calorie diet promotes early pancreatic neoplasia in the conditional KrasG12D mouse model. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2013; 6(10): 1064-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-13-0065] [PMID: 23943783]
].

Studies using fish oil or n-3 fatty acids have produced differing results, depending on the experimental protocol. Substituting fish oil for oils high in polyunsaturated fats decreases [191O’Connor TP, Roebuck BD, Peterson F, Campbell TC. Effect of dietary intake of fish oil and fish protein on the development of L-azaserine-induced preneoplastic lesions in the rat pancreas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(5): 959-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/75.5.959] [PMID: 3863992]
, 192O’Connor TP, Roebuck BD, Peterson FJ, Lokesh B, Kinsella JE, Campbell TC. Effect of dietary omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on development of azaserine-induced preneoplastic lesions in rat pancreas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1989; 81(11): 858-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/81.11.858] [PMID: 2724351]
] or does not affect [193Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Modulation of growth and cell turnover of preneoplastic lesions and of prostaglandin levels in rat pancreas by dietary fish oil. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15(10): 2107-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/15.10.2107] [PMID: 7955040]
] the development of azaserine-induced preneoplastic lesions in rats. Adding fish oil to a diet containing adequate polyunsaturated fatty acids enhances azaserine-induced carcinogenesis in rats and BOP-induced carcinogenesis in hamsters [194Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Effects of dietary fish oil (MaxEPA) on N-nitrosobis(2-oxopropyl)amine (BOP)-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis in hamsters. Cancer Lett 1995; 94(2): 179-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(95)03848-Q] [PMID: 7634246]
-196Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Effects of a diet high in fish oil (MaxEPA) on the formation of micronucleated erythrocytes in blood and on the number of atypical acinar cell foci Induced in rat pancreas by azaserine. Nutr Cancer 2003; 47(1): 57-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327914nc4701_7] [PMID: 14769538]
]. However, Heukamp et al. [197Heukamp I, Gregor JI, Kilian M, et al. Influence of different dietary fat intake on liver metastasis and hepatic lipid peroxidation in BOP-induced pancreatic cancer in Syrian hamsters. Pancreatology 2006; 6(1-2): 96-102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000090028] [PMID: 16327286]
] found that increasing dietary n-3 fatty acids inhibited the incidence but not the number of liver metastases in BOP-treated hamsters compared to hamsters fed a low-fat diet or a diet enriched in n-3, n-6 and n-9 fatty acids; the incidence of pancreatic adenocarcinomas did not differ among the diets. Also, Strouch et al. [198Strouch MJ, Ding Y, Salabat MR, et al. A high omega-3 fatty acid diet mitigates murine pancreatic precancer development. J Surg Res 2011; 165(1): 75-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2009.04.022] [PMID: 19631339]
] found that increasing dietary n-3 fatty acids inhibited precancerous lesions similar to PanINs in elastase-mutant Kras transgenic mice.

Finally, it has been observed in 2-year carcinogenesis studies in which corn oil gavage has been used as the vehicle for the carcinogen that a higher incidence of pancreatic acinar cell adenomas is present in corn oil gavage-treated male Fischer-344 control rats than in untreated controls [199Eustis SL, Boorman GA. Proliferative lesions of the exocrine pancreas: Relationship to corn oil gavage in the National Toxicology Program. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(6): 1067-73.
[PMID: 3865010]
, 200Haseman JK, Huff JE, Rao GN, Arnold JE, Boorman GA, McConnell EE. Neoplasms observed in untreated and corn oil gavage control groups of F344/N rats and (C57BL/6N X C3H/HeN)F1 (B6C3F1) mice. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(5): 975-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/75.5.975] [PMID: 3863995]
]. This association was not observed in female rats or in male or female B6C3F1 mice.

Mechanisms by which dietary fat may influence pancreatic carcinogenesis include modification of cholecystokinin [CCK] secretion [201Matters GL, Cooper TK, McGovern CO, et al. Cholecystokinin mediates progression and metastasis of pancreatic cancer associated with dietary fat. Dig Dis Sci 2014; 59(6): 1180-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10620-014-3201-8] [PMID: 24817409]
], effects of fatty acids on pancreatic cell growth [202Yu M, Liu H, Duan Y, Zhang D, Li S, Wang F. Four types of fatty acids exert differential impact on pancreatic cancer growth. Cancer Lett 2015; 360(2): 187-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2015.02.002] [PMID: 25676690]
], or epigenetic modifications [203Weisbeck A, Jansen RJ. Nutrients and the Pancreas: An Epigenetic Perspective. Nutrients 2017; 9(3): 9. [3].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu9030283] [PMID: 28294968]
].

5. PROSTATE CANCER

Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in men. An estimated 175,000 cases will be diagnosed in 2019, and 31,000 men will die from it [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.].

A number of case-control and prospective studies have examined the role of dietary fat in prostate cancer. Most case-control studies have observed a positive correlation between the intake of total and saturated fat and the development of prostate cancer, although others did not see an effect [204Di Sebastiano KM, Mourtzakis M. The role of dietary fat throughout the prostate cancer trajectory. Nutrients 2014; 6(12): 6095-109.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu6126095] [PMID: 25533015]
, 205Ma RW, Chapman K. A systematic review of the effect of diet in prostate cancer prevention and treatment. J Hum Nutr Diet 2009; 22(3): 187-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-277X.2009.00946.x] [PMID: 19344379]
]. Increased total and saturated fat intakes were associated with a higher risk of advanced prostate cancer in case-control studies [206Gathirua-Mwangi WG, Zhang J. Dietary factors and risk for advanced prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 2014; 23(2): 96-109.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0b013e3283647394] [PMID: 23872953]
]. Several prospective studies have been performed, with most observing no effect; a meta-analysis also did not find an effect of total, saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated intake [207Lin PH, Aronson W, Freedland SJ. Nutrition, dietary interventions and prostate cancer: The latest evidence. BMC Med 2015; 13: 3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0234-y] [PMID: 25573005]
, 208Xu C, Han FF, Zeng XT, Liu TZ, Li S, Gao ZY. Fat intake is not linked to prostate cancer: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. PLoS One 2015; 10(7)e0131747
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131747] [PMID: 26186528]
].

In experimental animal models, several studies have found that high-fat diets enhance the growth of transplantable prostate tumors, but these inconsistent effects are seen in chemically-induced prostate carcinogenesis models [209Zhou JR, Blackburn GL. Bridging animal and human studies: What are the missing segments in dietary fat and prostate cancer? Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66(6)(Suppl.): 1572S-80S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/66.6.1572S] [PMID: 9394717]
-216Xu H, Hu MB, Bai PD, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines in prostate cancer development and progression promoted by high-fat diet. BioMed Res Int 2015; 2015249741
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/249741] [PMID: 25722971]
].

6. LIVER CANCER

Liver cancer is the fifth leading cause of death from cancer in males, and is 7th in females [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.]. Estimated 42,030 new cases of liver cancer including intrahepatic bile duct cancers were expected to occur in the US during 2019; and estimated 31,780 liver cancer deaths 10,180 women, 21,600 men were expected. Liver cancer incidence rates are about 3 times higher in men than in women and have tripled since 1980. From 2006 to 2015, the overall incidence rate increased by 3% per year.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD] is strongly associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome [217Sarwar R, Pierce N, Koppe S. Obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Current perspectives. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2018; 11: 533-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/DMSO.S146339] [PMID: 30288073]
, 218Polyzos SA, Kountouras J, Mantzoros CS. Obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: From pathophysiology to therapeutics. Metabolism 2018.
[PMID: 30502373]
]. The incidence of NAFLD has been dramatically increasing. NAFLD has been found to increase the risk of liver cancer [219Michelotti GA, Machado MV, Diehl AM. NAFLD, NASH and liver cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 10(11): 656-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2013.183] [PMID: 24080776]
].

One of the contributors to the development of obesity may be a higher consumption of dietary fat. Epidemiological studies have shown that the consumption of a higher percentage of fat in the diet correlates with the incidence of obesity [220Bray GA, Paeratakul S, Popkin BM. Dietary fat and obesity: A review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies. Physiol Behav 2004; 83(4): 549-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.039] [PMID: 15621059]
]. High-fat diets have also been found to induce obesity in animal models [220Bray GA, Paeratakul S, Popkin BM. Dietary fat and obesity: A review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies. Physiol Behav 2004; 83(4): 549-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.039] [PMID: 15621059]
, 221Hariri N, Thibault L. High-fat diet-induced obesity in animal models. Nutr Res Rev 2010; 23(2): 270-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954422410000168] [PMID: 20977819]
]. However, the incidence of obesity in the USA has increased dramatically over the past 50 years, from 13% in 1960 to 38% in 2014 [222Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. Trends in Obesity Among Adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA 2016; 315(21): 2284-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.6458] [PMID: 27272580]
, 223Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Ogden CL. Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity, and Extreme Obesity Among Adults Aged 20 and Over: United States, 1960–1962 Through 2013–2014. In: Survey DoHaNE, editor.: National Center for Health Statistics; 2016. ], whereas the percentage of dietary fat in the American diet has decreased from 45% in 1965 to 37.5% in 1971 and 33.6% in 2011 [224Cohen E, Cragg M, deFonseka J, Hite A, Rosenberg M, Zhou B. Statistical review of US macronutrient consumption data, 1965-2011: Americans have been following dietary guidelines, coincident with the rise in obesity. Nutrition 2015; 31(5): 727-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2015.02.007] [PMID: 25837220]
].

Many early experimental animal studies of dietary fat and cancer used the liver as the target organ. In these studies, aromatic amines and azo dyes were frequently used to induce hepatocellular carcinomas. In later studies, the effects of dietary fat on initiation and promotion in the liver or in transgenic models were examined. In initiation-promotion protocols, the administration of a single subcarcinogenic dose of a carcinogen such as diethylnitrosamine [DEN] or DMBA along with a proliferative stimulus such as partial hepatectomy followed by the long-term feeding of chemicals such as phenobarbital, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, or polyhalogenated biphenyls leads to a high incidence of hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas [225Pitot HC, Dragan YP. Chemical induction of hepatic neoplasia.The Liver: Biology and Pathobiology 3rd ed. 1994; 1467-95., 226Glauert HP, Robertson LW, Silberhorn EM. PCBs and tumor promotion.PCBs: Recent Advances in Environmental Toxicology and Health Effects 2001; 355-71.]. In addition, foci of putative preneoplastic hepatocytes appear before the development of gross tumors. These foci, known as altered hepatic foci or enzyme-altered foci, contain cells which exhibit qualitatively altered enzyme activities or alterations in one or more cell functions [225Pitot HC, Dragan YP. Chemical induction of hepatic neoplasia.The Liver: Biology and Pathobiology 3rd ed. 1994; 1467-95.]. The enzymes most frequently studied include γ-glutamyl transpeptidase [GGT] and Placental Glutathione-S-Transferase [PGST], which are normally not present in adult liver but which are often present in foci; and ATPase and glucose-6-phosphatase, which are normally present but which are frequently missing from foci [227Pitot HC, Glauert HP, Hanigan M. The significance of selected biochemical markers in the characterization of putative initiated cell populations in rodent liver. Cancer Lett 1985; 29(1): 1-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(85)90116-8] [PMID: 2866027]
, 228Hendrich S, Campbell HA, Pitot HC. Quantitative stereological evaluation of four histochemical markers of altered foci in multistage hepatocarcinogenesis in the rat. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8(9): 1245-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/8.9.1245] [PMID: 2887301]
]. Altered hepatic foci can also be identified on hematoxylin and eosin stained tissue [229Bannasch P, Enzmann H, Klimek F, Weber E, Zerban H. Significance of sequential cellular changes inside and outside foci of altered hepatocytes during hepatocarcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 1989; 17(4 Pt 1): 617-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192623389017004107] [PMID: 2697940]
, 230Harada T, Maronpot RR, Morris RW, Stitzel KA, Boorman GA. Morphological and stereological characterization of hepatic foci of cellular alteration in control Fischer 344 rats. Toxicol Pathol 1989; 17(4 Pt 1): 579-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192623389017004104] [PMID: 2483465]
]. The appearance of foci has been correlated with the later development of malignant neoplasms [231Emmelot P, Scherer E. The first relevant cell stage in rat liver carcinogenesis. A quantitative approach. Biochim Biophys Acta 1980; 605(2): 247-304.
[PMID: 6249366]
, 232Kunz HW, Tennekes HA, Port RE, Schwartz M, Lorke D, Schaude G. Quantitative aspects of chemical carcinogenesis and tumor promotion in liver. Environ Health Perspect 1983; 50: 113-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8350113] [PMID: 6223810]
]. Transgenic mouse models of liver carcinogenesis have also been developed [233Calvisi DF, Thorgeirsson SS. Molecular mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis in transgenic mouse models of liver cancer. Toxicol Pathol 2005; 33(1): 181-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01926230590522095] [PMID: 15805070]
, 234Heindryckx F, Colle I, Van Vlierberghe H. Experimental mouse models for hepatocellular carcinoma research. Int J Exp Pathol 2009; 90(4): 367-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2613.2009.00656.x] [PMID: 19659896]
].

The first studies examined the effect of dietary fat on the induction of hepatocellular carcinomas by complete hepatocarcinogens. In the liver, increasing the fat content of the diet enhances the development of 2-acetylaminofluorene [AAF]-, p-dimethylaminoazobenzene [DAB]-, and aflatoxin B1 [AFB]-induced tumors and GGT-positive foci in rats [235Kline BE, Miller JA, Rusch HP, Baumann CA. Certain effects of dietary fats on the production of liver tumors in rats fed p-dimethylaminoazobenzene. Cancer Res 1946; 6: 5-7.
[PMID: 21008268]
-239Hietanen E, Bartsch H, Ahotupa M, et al. Mechanisms of fat-related modulation of N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced tumors in rats: Organ distribution, blood lipids, enzymes and pro-oxidant state. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12(4): 591-600.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/12.4.591] [PMID: 1672840]
]. Furthermore, hepatocarcinogenesis by DAB is enhanced by feeding a diet which contains a greater proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids [240Miller JA, Kline BE, Rusch HP, Baumann CA. The carcinogenicity of p-dimethylaminoazobenzene in diets containing hydrogenated coconut oil. Cancer Res 1944; 4: 153-8., 241Miller JA, Kline BE, Rusch HP, Baumann CA. The effect of certain lipids on the carcinogenicity of p-dimethylaminoazobenzene. Cancer Res 1944; 4: 756-61.]. In these studies, however, the diets were administered at the same time as the carcinogen injections, so that the stage of carcinogenesis which was affected could not be determined.

Other studies have examined whether this enhancement of hepatocarcinogenesis is caused by an effect on the initiation of carcinogenesis, the promotion of carcinogenesis, or both. Misslbeck et al. [242Misslbeck NG, Campbell TC, Roe DA. Effect of ethanol consumed in combination with high or low fat diets on the postinitiation phase of hepatocarcinogenesis in the rat. J Nutr 1984; 114(12): 2311-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/114.12.2311] [PMID: 6150073]
] found that increasing the corn oil content of the diet after the administration of 10 doses of aflatoxin increased the number and size of GGT-positive foci, but Baldwin and Parker [243Baldwin S, Parker RS. Influence of dietary fat and selenium in initiation and promotion of aflatoxin B1-induced preneoplastic foci in rat liver. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8(1): 101-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/8.1.101] [PMID: 2879648]
], using a similar protocol, found no effect of dietary corn oil. Glauert and Pitot [244Glauert HP, Pitot HC. Influence of dietary fat on the promotion of diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in female rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1986; 181(4): 498-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/00379727-181-42283] [PMID: 2869499]
] similarly found that increasing the safflower oil or palm oil content of the diet did not promote DEN-induced GGT-positive foci or greatly affect phenobarbital promotion of GGT-positive foci. The promotion of GGT-positive foci by dietary tryptophan also was not affected by dietary fat [245Sidransky H, Verney E, Wang D. Effects of varying fat content of a high tryptophan diet on the induction of gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase positive foci in the livers of rats treated with hepatocarcinogen. Cancer Lett 1986; 31(3): 235-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(86)90143-6] [PMID: 2872955]
]. Newberne et al. [246Newberne PM, Weigert J, Kula N. Effects of dietary fat on hepatic mixed-function oxidases and hepatocellular carcinoma induced by aflatoxin B1 in rats. Cancer Res 1979; 39(10): 3986-91.
[PMID: 476638]
] found that increasing dietary corn oil [but not beef fat] during and after the administration of AFB increased the incidence of hepatic tumors, but not when the diets were fed only after AFB administration. Baldwin and Parker [243Baldwin S, Parker RS. Influence of dietary fat and selenium in initiation and promotion of aflatoxin B1-induced preneoplastic foci in rat liver. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8(1): 101-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/8.1.101] [PMID: 2879648]
] also found that increasing the corn oil content of the diet before and during AFB administration increased the number and volume of GGT-positive foci. When rats are fed diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids [but not in saturated fatty acids] before receiving the hepatocarcinogen DEN, they develop more GGT-positive and ATPase-negative foci than rats fed low-fat diets [247Glauert HP, Lay LT, Kennan WS, Pitot HC. Effect of dietary fat on the initiation of hepatocarcinogenesis by diethylnitrosamine or 2-acetylaminofluorene in rats. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12(6): 991-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/12.6.991] [PMID: 1675161]
]. The feeding of diets high in corn oil but not lard enhanced the initiation of PGST-positive foci induced by azoxymethane [AOM] [248Rahman KM, Sugie S, Tanaka T, Mori H, Reddy BS. Effect of types and amount of dietary fat during the initiation phase of hepatocarcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 2001; 39(2): 220-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327914nc392_10] [PMID: 11759284]
]. Finally, the feeding of a high-fat diet inhibited the initiation of hepatic tumors induced by DEN [249Duan XY, Pan Q, Yan SY, Ding WJ, Fan JG, Qiao L. High-saturate-fat diet delays initiation of diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. BMC Gastroenterol 2014; 14: 195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12876-014-0195-9] [PMID: 25410681]
]. The results of these experimental animal studies suggest that the enhancement of chemically-induced hepatocarcinogenesis by dietary fat is primarily due to an effect on initiation, and that polyunsaturated fats have a greater effect than do saturated fats.

Other studies have fed diets sufficiently high in fat to induce nonalcoholic steatohepatitis [250Lieber CS, Leo MA, Mak KM, et al. Model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79(3): 502-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.3.502] [PMID: 14985228]
, 251Nakamura A, Tajima K, Zolzaya K, et al. Protection from non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and liver tumourigenesis in high fat-fed insulin receptor substrate-1-knockout mice despite insulin resistance. Diabetologia 2012; 55(12): 3382-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-012-2703-1] [PMID: 22955994]
]. Liquid high-fat diets increased the numbers of DEN-initiated PGST-positive foci in rats compared to rats fed a liquid control diet [252Wang Y, Ausman LM, Greenberg AS, Russell RM, Wang XD. Dietary lycopene and tomato extract supplementations inhibit nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-promoted hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Int J Cancer 2010; 126(8): 1788-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.24689] [PMID: 19551842]
, 253Wang Y, Ausman LM, Greenberg AS, Russell RM, Wang XD. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis induced by a high-fat diet promotes diethylnitrosamine-initiated early hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Int J Cancer 2009; 124(3): 540-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.23995] [PMID: 19004024]
]. In male C57Bl/6J mice, feeding high-fat diets induced liver tumors, as compared to mice fed a standard chow diet [251Nakamura A, Tajima K, Zolzaya K, et al. Protection from non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and liver tumourigenesis in high fat-fed insulin receptor substrate-1-knockout mice despite insulin resistance. Diabetologia 2012; 55(12): 3382-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-012-2703-1] [PMID: 22955994]
]. Therefore, the induction of steatohepatitis appears to alter the effect of high-fat diets.

7. SKIN CANCER

Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States. Most basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas are easily curable, but 96,000 cases of melanoma will be diagnosed in 2019, with 7,000 deaths [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.].

Using case-control and cohort study designs, Granger et al. [254Granger RH, Blizzard L, Fryer JL, Dwyer T. Association between dietary fat and skin cancer in an Australian population using case-control and cohort study designs. BMC Cancer 2006; 6: 141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-6-141] [PMID: 16734890]
] found that increased dietary fat consumption protected against the development of skin cancer. Davies et al. [255Davies TW, Treasure FP, Welch AA, Day NE. Diet and basal cell skin cancer: Results from the EPIC-Norfolk cohort. Br J Dermatol 2002; 146(6): 1017-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04763.x] [PMID: 12072070]
] and Gamba et al. [256Gamba CS, Stefanick ML, Shikany JM, et al. Low-fat diet and skin cancer risk: The women’s health initiative randomized controlled dietary modification trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2013; 22(9): 1509-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-0341] [PMID: 23697610]
], however, found that dietary fat did not influence non-melanoma skin carcinoma development. Recently, Park et al. [257Park MK, Li WQ, Qureshi AA, Cho E. Fat Intake and Risk of Skin Cancer in U.S. Adults. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2018; 27(7): 776-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-17-0782] [PMID: 29636341]
] found that polyunsaturated fat consumption increased the risk for skin cancer in a prospective study.

Mouse skin is one of the oldest and most widely-used systems for studying chemical carcinogenesis, including multistage carcinogenesis. Two-stage carcinogenesis initiation- promotion was first observed in mouse skin and involves initiation by a sub-carcinogenic dose of radiation or of a chemical such as a Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon [PAH] followed by the long-term administration of croton oil or its active ingredient 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate [TPA] [258Berenblum I, Shubik P. The role of croton oil applications, associated with a single painting of a carcinogen, in tumour induction of the mouse’s skin. Br J Cancer 1947; 1(4): 379-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.1947.35] [PMID: 18906315]
]. More recently, transgenic skin carcinogenesis models have been developed [259Greenhalgh DA, Wang XJ, Roop DR. Multistage epidermal carcinogenesis in transgenic mice: Cooperativity and paradox. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 1996; 1(2): 162-76.
[PMID: 9627712]
, 260Humble MC, Trempus CS, Spalding JW, Cannon RE, Tennant RW. Biological, cellular, and molecular characteristics of an inducible transgenic skin tumor model: A review. Oncogene 2005; 24(56): 8217-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1209000] [PMID: 16355251]
].

Most studies examining dietary fat have studied complete carcinogenesis by PAH or ultraviolet light. Early studies demonstrated that high-fat diets enhanced skin carcinogenesis induced by tar [261Watson AF, Mellanby E. Tar cancer in mice. II. The condition of the skin when modified by external treatment or diet, as a factor in influencing the cancerous reaction. Br J Exp Pathol 1930; 11: 311-22.] or PAH [262Lavik PS, Baumann CA. Further studies on the tumor-promoting action of fat. Cancer Res 1943; 3: 749-56.-268Boutwell RK, Brush MK, Rusch HP. The stimulating effect of dietary fat on carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1949; 9(12): 741-6.
[PMID: 15395908]
]. In studies where skin tumors were induced by ultraviolet [UV] light, Mathews-Roth and Krinsky [269Mathews-Roth MM, Krinsky NI. Effect of dietary fat level on UV-B induced skin tumors, and anti-tumor action of beta-carotene. Photochem Photobiol 1984; 40(5): 671-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1984.tb05358.x] [PMID: 6514814]
] and Vaid et al. [270Vaid M, Singh T, Prasad R, Katiyar SK. Intake of high-fat diet stimulates the risk of ultraviolet radiation-induced skin tumors and malignant progression of papillomas to carcinoma in SKH-1 hairless mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2014; 274(1): 147-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2013.10.030] [PMID: 24211275]
] found that high-fat diets increased skin carcinogenesis, whereas Black et al. [271Black HS, Lenger W, Phelps AW, Thornby JI. Influence of dietary lipid upon ultraviolet-light carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1983; 5(2): 59-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635588309513780] [PMID: 6647039]
] found that high-fat diets did not increase skin carcinogenesis, but that feeding a saturated fat inhibited tumorigenesis. Lou et al. [272Lou YR, Peng QY, Li T, et al. Effects of high-fat diets rich in either omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids on UVB-induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice. Carcinogenesis 2011; 32(7): 1078-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgr074] [PMID: 21525235]
] found that mice fed a diet high in ω-3 fatty acids developed fewer UVB-induced skin tumors than mice fed a diet high in ω-6 fatty acids. In a transgenic model, skin tumors in mice overexpressing the oncogenic human papillomavirus type 16 were increased when the mice were fed a diet high in n6-polyunsaturated fatty acids [corn oil] [273Qi M, Chen D, Liu K, Auborn KJ. n-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids increase skin but not cervical cancer in human papillomavirus 16 transgenic mice. Cancer Res 2002; 62(2): 433-6.
[PMID: 11809692]
].

The effect of fatty acids on the initiation and promotion of skin carcinogenesis has also been studied. Certain fatty acids--oleic acid and lauric acid--were found to have promoting activity when applied daily to mouse skin after a single application of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene [DMBA]; stearic acid and palmitic acid did not have any effect [274Holsti P. Tumor promoting effects of some long chain fatty acids in experimental skin carcinogenesis in the mouse. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 1959; 46(1): 51-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1959.tb00315.x] [PMID: 13669989]
]. When diets varying in their fat content were fed during the promotion stages of DMBA-initiated, TPA-promoted mouse skin carcinogenesis, high-fat diets were found to enhance the promotion of skin carcinogenesis in some studies [275Birt DF, White LT, Choi B, Pelling JC. Dietary fat effects on the initiation and promotion of two-stage skin tumorigenesis in the SENCAR mouse. Cancer Res 1989; 49(15): 4170-4.
[PMID: 2472874]
, 276Birt DF, Pelling JC, Tibbels MG, Schweickert L. Acceleration of papilloma growth in mice fed high-fat diets during promotion of two-stage skin carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1989; 12(2): 161-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635588909514014] [PMID: 2496398]
] but not in others [277Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. The effect of the level of dietary corn oil on mouse skin carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1991; 16(1): 1-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589109514135] [PMID: 1923905]
, 278Lo HH, Locniskar MF, Bechtel D, Fischer SM. Effects of type and amount of dietary fat on mouse skin tumor promotion. Nutr Cancer 1994; 22(1): 43-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589409514330] [PMID: 11304909]
]. High-fat diets also partially offset the tumor inhibitory effects of caloric restriction [279Birt DF, Barnett T, Pour PM, Copenhaver J. High-fat diet blocks the inhibition of skin carcinogenesis and reductions in protein kinase C by moderate energy restriction. Mol Carcinog 1996; 16(2): 115-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2744(199606)16:2<115::AID-MC8>3.0.CO;2-H] [PMID: 8645426]
]. Locniskar et al. [280Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. Lack of a protective effect of menhaden oil on skin tumor promotion by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. Carcinogenesis 1990; 11(9): 1641-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/11.9.1641] [PMID: 2401054]
] found that substituting menhaden oil for corn oil or coconut oil did not affect skin tumor promotion by TPA. When benzoyl peroxide was used as the promoting agent, mice fed mainly coconut oil had the highest tumor incidence and mice fed corn oil had the lowest tumor incidence, with those fed mainly menhaden oil having intermediate tumor incidence [281Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. The effect of dietary lipid on skin tumor promotion by benzoyl peroxide: Comparison of fish, coconut and corn oil. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12(6): 1023-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/12.6.1023] [PMID: 1904320]
]. In a study using mezerein as the promoting agent, high-fat diets did not increase the skin carcinogenesis [282Birt DF, Pelling JC, Anderson J, Barnett T. Consumption of reduced-energy/low-fat diet or constant-energy/high-fat diet during mezerein treatment inhibited mouse skin tumor promotion. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15(10): 2341-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/15.10.2341] [PMID: 7955075]
]. High-fat diets were found to not affect or slightly inhibit initiation [275Birt DF, White LT, Choi B, Pelling JC. Dietary fat effects on the initiation and promotion of two-stage skin tumorigenesis in the SENCAR mouse. Cancer Res 1989; 49(15): 4170-4.
[PMID: 2472874]
, 283Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. The effect of various dietary fats on skin tumor initiation. Nutr Cancer 1991; 16(3-4): 189-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589109514157] [PMID: 1670290]
], and substituting coconut oil for corn oil did not influence UV-induced skin carcinogenesis [284Berton TR, Fischer SM, Conti CJ, Locniskar MF. Comparison of ultraviolet light-induced skin carcinogenesis and ornithine decarboxylase activity in sencar and hairless SKH-1 mice fed a constant level of dietary lipid varying in corn and coconut oil. Nutr Cancer 1996; 26(3): 353-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589609514491] [PMID: 8910917]
].

8. LUNG CANCER

Lung cancer is the leading cause of death from cancer in both men and women. 228,000 cases of lung cancer will be diagnosed in 2019, and 142,000 people will die from it [1American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.].

Lung cancer risk was not found to be significantly affected by total dietary fat in prospective studies, but several case-control studies have observed an association [285Ziegler RG, Mayne ST, Swanson CA. Nutrition and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996; 7(1): 157-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00115646] [PMID: 8850443]
-289Veierød MB, Laake P, Thelle DS. Dietary fat intake and risk of lung cancer: A prospective study of 51,452 Norwegian men and women. Eur J Cancer Prev 1997; 6(6): 540-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00008469-199712000-00009] [PMID: 9496456]
], although several investigators indicated that their results may have been affected by confounding from smoking. In pooled analyses, neither total nor polyunsaturated fat was found to affect lung cancer risk [290Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary fat and risk of lung cancer in a pooled analysis of prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11(10 Pt 1): 987-92.
[PMID: 12376497]
, 291Zhang YF, Lu J, Yu FF, Gao HF, Zhou YH. Polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and risk of lung cancer: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One 2014; 9(6)e99637
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099637] [PMID: 24925369]
].

In experimental animal models, dietary fat enhanced BP- or BOP-induced carcinogenesis in hamsters [183Birt DF, Pour PM. Increased tumorigenesis induced by N-nitrosobis(2-oxopropyl)amine in Syrian golden hamsters fed high-fat diets. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983; 70(6): 1135-8.
[PMID: 6574283]
, 292Beems RB, van Beek L. Modifying effect of dietary fat on benzo[a]pyrene-induced respiratory tract tumours in hamsters. Carcinogenesis 1984; 5(3): 413-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/5.3.413] [PMID: 6323047]
], whereas in mice a high-fat diet did not affect spontaneous carcinogenesis in one study [267Tannenbaum A. The genesis and growth of tumors. III. Effects of a high fat diet. Cancer Res 1942; 2: 468-75.] and produced different results in 2-amino-3, 8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f] quinoxaline [MeIQx]-induced tumors [293Matsuda Y, Takeuchi H, Yokohira M, et al. Enhancing effects of a high fat diet on 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline-induced lung tumorigenesis in female A/J mice. Mol Med Rep 2009; 2(5): 701-6.
[PMID: 21475888]
, 294Takeuchi H, Saoo K, Yamakawa K, et al. Tumorigenesis of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), but not enhancing effects of concomitant high-fat diet, on lung carcinogenesis in female A/J mice. Oncol Lett 2010; 1(1): 137-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ol_00000025] [PMID: 22966271]
]. Tumor metastasis of Lewis lung carcinoma cells was increased by high-fat diets [295Yan L, DeMars LC. Effects of dietary fat on spontaneous metastasis of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. Clin Exp Metastasis 2010; 27(8): 581-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10585-010-9347-7] [PMID: 20697780]
-297Yan L, Combs GF Jr. Consumption of a high-fat diet abrogates inhibitory effects of methylseleninic acid on spontaneous metastasis of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35(10): 2308-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgu153] [PMID: 25053624]
].

9. OTHER CANCERS

Fewer studies have been conducted for other major forms of human cancer. For endometrial cancer, several but not all case-control studies have noted an association with dietary fat; a meta-analysis did not observe an association [298Jiang L, Hou R, Gong TT, Wu QJ. Dietary fat intake and endometrial cancer risk: Dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 16693.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep16693] [PMID: 26568366]
]. Similarly, no association was observed in prospective studies. No significant effects were observed with either plant fat or animal fat intake [298Jiang L, Hou R, Gong TT, Wu QJ. Dietary fat intake and endometrial cancer risk: Dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 16693.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep16693] [PMID: 26568366]
]. Case-control studies examining dietary fat and bladder cancer showed an association in some but not all studies; a prospective study did not observe a correlation between dietary fat intake and the development of bladder cancer [299Golabek T, Powroźnik J, Chłosta P, Dobruch J, Borówka A. The impact of nutrition in urogenital cancers. Arch Med Sci 2015; 11(2): 411-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2015.50973] [PMID: 25995760]
]. Dietary fat has been found to be a risk factor for ovarian cancer in some epidemiological studies but not in others [300Kushi LH, Mink PJ, Folsom AR, et al. Prospective study of diet and ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 149(1): 21-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009723] [PMID: 9883790]
-309Chang ET, Lee VS, Canchola AJ, et al. Diet and risk of ovarian cancer in the California Teachers Study cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2007; 165(7): 802-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwk065] [PMID: 17210953]
]. The development of esophageal cancer was found to be increased by dietary fat in two case-control studies [310Wolfgarten E, Rosendahl U, Nowroth T, et al. Coincidence of nutritional habits and esophageal cancer in Germany. Onkologie 2001; 24(6): 546-51.
[PMID: 11799309]
, 311O’Doherty MG, Cantwell MM, Murray LJ, Anderson LA, Abnet CC, Group FS. Dietary fat and meat intakes and risk of reflux esophagitis, Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Int J Cancer 2011; 129(6): 1493-502.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.26108] [PMID: 21455992]
].

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Clearly, there is much variability in studies of dietary fat and cancer, both in epidemiological and experimental studies. Because of this variability, particularly in prospective epidemiological studies, recommendations for preventing human cancer should not include decreasing the fat content of the diet. This is reflected in recent recommendations for reducing cancer risk by dietary means. For example, in 1997 the American Institute for Cancer Research stated to “limit consumption of fatty foods, particularly those of animal origin” [312World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective 1997.]. In their updated 2007 report [313World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective 2007.], however, there is no specific recommendation for dietary fat. In addition, the American Cancer Society no longer specifically recommends lowering fat intake and instead advises individuals to “consume a healthy diet with an emphasis on plant sources” [314Chao A, Thun MJ, Connell CJ, et al. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA 2005; 293(2): 172-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.2.172] [PMID: 15644544]
].

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAF = 2-acetylaminofluorene
ACF = Aberrant Crypt Foci
AFB = Aflatoxin B1
AOM = Azoxymethane
APC = Adenomatous Polyposis Coli
BOP = N-nitrosobis[2-oxopropyl]amine
BP = Benzo[a]pyrene
DAB = p-dimethylaminoazobenzene
DEN = Diethylnitrosamine
DMBA = 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene
DMH = 1,2-dimethylhydrazine
GGT = γ-glutamyl transpeptidase
LXR = Liver X Receptor
MAM = Methylazoxymethanol
MNU = Methylnitrosourea
PAH = Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon[s]
PanIN = Pancreatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia
PGST = Placental Glutathione S-transferase
PKC = Protein Kinase C
PPAR = Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor
TPA = 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate

DISCLOSURE

Part of this article has previously been published, in the following articles: Dietary Fatty Acids and Cancer, Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, 3nd Edition, edited by C.K. Chow, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 1085-1108, 2008; and Influence of Dietary Fat on the Development of Cancer, Food Lipids, CRC Press, 2008, pp. 646-665. [Available at https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429110320/ chapters/10.1201/9781420046649-32]

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

Not applicable.

FUNDING

None.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Declared none.

REFERENCES

[1] American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2019.
[2] Fraser D. Nutrition and cancer: epidemiological aspects. Public Health Rev 1996; 24(2): 113-21.
[PMID: 8918179]
[3] Kushi L, Giovannucci E. Dietary fat and cancer. Am J Med 2002; 113(Suppl. 9B): 63S-70S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00994-9] [PMID: 125661 41]
[4] Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Relation of meat, fat, and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women. N Engl J Med 1990; 323(24): 1664-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199012133232404] [PMID: 21728 20]
[5] Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz G, Rimm EB, Willett WC. Relationship of diet to risk of colorectal adenoma in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84(2): 91-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/84.2.91] [PMID: 1310511]
[6] Singh PN, Fraser GE. Dietary risk factors for colon cancer in a low-risk population. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148(8): 761-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009697] [PMID: 97862 31]
[7] Butler LM, Wang R, Koh WP, Stern MC, Yuan JM, Yu MC. Marine n-3 and saturated fatty acids in relation to risk of colorectal cancer in Singapore Chinese: A prospective study. Int J Cancer 2009; 124(3): 678-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.23950] [PMID: 18973226]
[8] Garland C, Shekelle RB, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Rossof AH, Paul O. Dietary vitamin D and calcium and risk of colorectal cancer: A 19-year prospective study in men. Lancet 1985; 1(8424): 307-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)91082-7] [PMID: 2857364]
[9] Phillips RL, Snowdon DA. Dietary relationships with fatal colorectal cancer among Seventh-Day Adventists. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 74(2): 307-17.
[PMID: 3856044]
[10] Thun MJ, Calle EE, Namboodiri MM, et al. Risk factors for fatal colon cancer in a large prospective study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84(19): 1491-500.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/84.19.1491] [PMID: 1433333]
[11] Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA, van ’t Veer P, et al. A prospective cohort study on the relation between meat consumption and the risk of colon cancer. Cancer Res 1994; 54(3): 718-23.
[PMID: 8306333]
[12] Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Willett WC. Intake of fat, meat, and fiber in relation to risk of colon cancer in men. Cancer Res 1994; 54(9): 2390-7.
[PMID: 8162586]
[13] Bostick RM, Potter JD, Kushi LH, et al. Sugar, meat, and fat intake, and non-dietary risk factors for colon cancer incidence in Iowa women (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1994; 5(1): 38-52. [United States].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01830725] [PMID: 8123778]
[14] Gaard M, Tretli S, Løken EB. Dietary factors and risk of colon cancer: A prospective study of 50,535 young Norwegian men and women. Eur J Cancer Prev 1996; 5(6): 445-54.
[PMID: 9061275]
[15] Kato I, Akhmedkhanov A, Koenig K, Toniolo PG, Shore RE, Riboli E. Prospective study of diet and female colorectal cancer: The New York University Women’s Health Study. Nutr Cancer 1997; 28(3): 276-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589709514588] [PMID: 9343837]
[16] Pietinen P, Malila N, Virtanen M, et al. Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Cancer Causes Control 1999; 10(5): 387-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1008962219408] [PMID: 10530608]
[17] Järvinen R, Knekt P, Hakulinen T, Aromaa A. Prospective study on milk products, calcium and cancers of the colon and rectum. Eur J Clin Nutr 2001; 55(11): 1000-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601260] [PMID: 11641750]
[18] Terry P, Hu FB, Hansen H, Wolk A. Prospective study of major dietary patterns and colorectal cancer risk in women. Am J Epidemiol 2001; 154(12): 1143-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/154.12.1143] [PMID: 11744520]
[19] Terry P, Bergkvist L, Holmberg L, Wolk A. No association between fat and fatty acids intake and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001; 10(8): 913-4.
[PMID: 11489762]
[20] Flood A, Velie EM, Sinha R, et al. Meat, fat, and their subtypes as risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective cohort of women. Am J Epidemiol 2003; 158(1): 59-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg099] [PMID: 12835287]
[21] Robertson DJ, Sandler RS, Haile R, et al. Fat, fiber, meat and the risk of colorectal adenomas. Am J Gastroenterol 2005; 100(12): 2789-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.00336.x] [PMID: 16393237]
[22] Oba S, Shimizu N, Nagata C, et al. The relationship between the consumption of meat, fat, and coffee and the risk of colon cancer: A prospective study in Japan. Cancer Lett 2006; 244(2): 260-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2005.12.037] [PMID: 16519996]
[23] Lin J, Zhang SM, Cook NR, Lee IM, Buring JE. Dietary fat and fatty acids and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 160(10): 1011-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwh319] [PMID: 15522858]
[24] Sanjoaquin MA, Appleby PN, Thorogood M, Mann JI, Key TJ. Nutrition, lifestyle and colorectal cancer incidence: A prospective investigation of 10998 vegetarians and non-vegetarians in the United Kingdom. Br J Cancer 2004; 90(1): 118-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6601441] [PMID: 14710217]
[25] Dahm CC, Keogh RH, Lentjes MA, et al. Intake of dietary fats and colorectal cancer risk: Prospective findings from the UK Dietary Cohort Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol 2010; 34(5): 562-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2010.07.008] [PMID: 20702156]
[26] Hirayama T. A large-scale cohort study on the relationship between diet and selected cancers of digestive organs.Gastrointestinal Cancer: Endogenous Factors 1981; 409-29. [Banbury Report 7]
[27] Stemmermann GN, Nomura AM, Heilbrun LK. Dietary fat and the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Res 1984; 44(10): 4633-7.
[PMID: 6467218]
[28] Chyou PH, Nomura AM, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of colon and rectal cancer among Hawaii Japanese men. Ann Epidemiol 1996; 6(4): 276-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(96)00047-6] [PMID: 8876837]
[29] Bouvard V, Loomis D, Guyton KZ, et al. International agency for research on cancer monograph working G. carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. Lancet Oncol 2015.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00444-1]
[30] IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. 2018.
[31] Beresford SA, Johnson KC, Ritenbaugh C, et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of colorectal cancer: The women’s health initiative randomized controlled dietary modification trial. JAMA 2006; 295(6): 643-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.6.643] [PMID: 16467233]
[32] Druckrey H. Production of colonic carcinomas by 1,2-dialkyhydrazines and azoalkanes.Carcinoma of the Colon and Antecedent Epithelium 1970; 267-78.
[33] Reddy BS, Ohmori T. Effect of intestinal microflora and dietary fat on 3,2′-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl-induced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats. Cancer Res 1981; 41(4): 1363-7.
[PMID: 7194137]
[34] Nauss KM, Locniskar M, Sondergaard D, Newberne PM. Lack of effect of dietary fat on N-nitrosomethyl urea (NMU)-induced colon tumorigenesis in rats. Carcinogenesis 1984; 5(2): 255-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/5.2.255] [PMID: 6697442]
[35] Rogers AE, Nauss KM. Rodent models for carcinoma of the colon. Dig Dis Sci 1985; 30(12)(Suppl.): 87S-102S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01296986] [PMID: 2998716]
[36] Ward JM. Dose response to a single injection of azoxymethane in rats. Induction of tumors in the gastrointestinal tract, auditory sebaceous glands, kidney, liver and preputial gland. Vet Pathol 1975; 12(3): 165-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030098587501200302] [PMID: 173070]
[37] Schiller CM, Curley WH, McConnell EE. Induction of colon tumors by a single oral dose of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. Cancer Lett 1980; 11(1): 75-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(80)90131-7] [PMID: 7226140]
[38] Decaens C, Gautier R, Daher N, Bara J, Burtin P. Induction of rat intestinal carcinogenesis with single doses, low and high repeated doses of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. Carcinogenesis 1989; 10(1): 69-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/10.1.69] [PMID: 2910533]
[39] Glauert HP, Weeks JA. Dose- and time-response of colon carcinogenesis in Fischer-344 rats after a single dose of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. Toxicol Lett 1989; 48(3): 283-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4274(89)90055-6] [PMID: 2781597]
[40] Karkare MR, Clark TD, Glauert HP. Effect of dietary calcium on colon carcinogenesis induced by a single injection of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine in rats. J Nutr 1991; 121(4): 568-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/121.4.568] [PMID: 2007910]
[41] Reddy BS, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effects of dietary fat level and dimethylhydrazine on fecal acid and neutral sterol excretion and colon carcinogenesis in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 52(2): 507-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/52.2.507] [PMID: 4816006]
[42] Bull AW, Soullier BK, Wilson PS, Hayden MT, Nigro ND. Promotion of azoxymethane-induced intestinal cancer by high-fat diet in rats. Cancer Res 1979; 39(12): 4956-9.
[PMID: 498120]
[43] Glauert HP, Bennink MR, Sander CH. Enhancement of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis in mice by dietary agar. Food Cosmet Toxicol 1981; 19(3): 281-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0015-6264(81)90385-0] [PMID: 6266936]
[44] Nauss KM, Locniskar M, Newberne PM. Effect of alterations in the quality and quantity of dietary fat on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon tumorigenesis in rats. Cancer Res 1983; 43(9): 4083-90.
[PMID: 6871849]
[45] Sakaguchi M, Minoura T, Hiramatsu Y, et al. Effects of dietary saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on fecal bile acids and colon carcinogenesis induced by azoxymethane in rats. Cancer Res 1986; 46(1): 61-5.
[PMID: 3940210]
[46] Thompson MB. The Min mouse: A genetic model for intestinal carcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 1997; 25(3): 329-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019262339702500312] [PMID: 9210266]
[47] Tammariello AE, Milner JA. Mouse models for unraveling the importance of diet in colon cancer prevention. J Nutr Biochem 2010; 21(2): 77-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.09.014] [PMID: 20122631]
[48] Bird RP. Observation and quantification of aberrant crypts in the murine colon treated with a colon carcinogen: Preliminary findings. Cancer Lett 1987; 37(2): 147-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(87)90157-1] [PMID: 3677050]
[49] Hardman WE, Heitman DW, Cameron IL. Suppression of the progression of 1,2 dimethylhydrazine [DMH] induced colon carcinogenesis by 20% dietary corn oil in rats supplemented with dietary pectin. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 1991; 32(1): 131.
[50] Pereira MA, Barnes LH, Rassman VL, Kelloff GV, Steele VE. Use of azoxymethane-induced foci of aberrant crypts in rat colon to identify potential cancer chemopreventive agents. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15(5): 1049-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/15.5.1049] [PMID: 8200067]
[51] Wargovich MJ, Chen CD, Jimenez A, et al. Aberrant crypts as a biomarker for colon cancer: Evaluation of potential chemopreventive agents in the rat. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1996; 5(5): 355-60.
[PMID: 9162301]
[52] Alrawi SJ, Schiff M, Carroll RE, et al. Aberrant crypt foci. Anticancer Res 2006; 26(1A): 107-19.
[PMID: 16475686]
[53] Guillem JG, Hsieh LL, O’Toole KM, Forde KA, LoGerfo P, Weinstein IB. Changes in expression of oncogenes and endogenous retroviral-like sequences during colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1988; 48(14): 3964-71.
[PMID: 3383191]
[54] Wargovich MJ, Allnutt D, Palmer C, Anaya P, Stephens LC. Inhibition of the promotional phase of azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in the F344 rat by calcium lactate: Effect of simulating two human nutrient density levels. Cancer Lett 1990; 53(1): 17-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(90)90005-I] [PMID: 2397478]
[55] Zhao LP, Kushi LH, Klein RD, Prentice RL. Quantitative review of studies of dietary fat and rat colon carcinoma. Nutr Cancer 1991; 15(3-4): 169-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589109514124] [PMID: 1866311]
[56] Clinton SK, Imrey PB, Mangian HJ, Nandkumar S, Visek WJ. The combined effects of dietary fat, protein, and energy intake on azoxymethane-induced intestinal and renal carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1992; 52(4): 857-65.
[PMID: 1737347]
[57] Hardman WE, Cameron IL. Site specific reduction of colon cancer incidence, without a concomitant reduction in cryptal cell proliferation, in 1,2-dimethylhydrazine treated rats by diets containing 10% pectin with 5% or 20% corn oil. Carcinogenesis 1995; 16(6): 1425-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/16.6.1425] [PMID: 7788864]
[58] Rijnkels JM, Hollanders VMH, Woutersen RA, Koeman JH, Alink GM. Modulation of dietary fat-enhanced colorectal carcinogenesis in N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-treated rats by a vegetables-fruit mixture. Nutr Cancer 1997; 29(1): 90-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589709514607] [PMID: 9383790]
[59] Takeshita M, Ueda H, Shirabe K, Higuchi Y, Yoshida S. Lack of promotion of colon carcinogenesis by high-oleic safflower oil. Cancer 1997; 79(8): 1487-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19970415)79:8<1487::AID-CNCR7>3.0.CO;2-8] [PMID: 9118028]
[60] Wijnands MV, Appel MJ, Hollanders VM, Woutersen RA. A comparison of the effects of dietary cellulose and fermentable galacto-oligosaccharide, in a rat model of colorectal carcinogenesis: Fermentable fibre confers greater protection than non-fermentable fibre in both high and low fat backgrounds. Carcinogenesis 1999; 20(4): 651-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/20.4.651] [PMID: 10223195]
[61] Rao CV, Hirose Y, Indranie C, Reddy BS. Modulation of experimental colon tumorigenesis by types and amounts of dietary fatty acids. Cancer Res 2001; 61(5): 1927-33.
[PMID: 11280748]
[62] Park SY, Kim JS, Seo YR, Sung MK. Effects of diet-induced obesity on colitis-associated colon tumor formation in A/J mice. Int J Obes 2012; 36(2): 273-80. [Lond].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2011.83] [PMID: 21544082]
[63] Bird RP, Yao K, Lasko CM, Good CK. Inability of low- or high-fat diet to modulate late stages of colon carcinogenesis in Sprague-Dawley rats. Cancer Res 1996; 56(13): 2896-9.
[PMID: 8674035]
[64] Reddy BS, Narisawa T, Vukusich D, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effect of quality and quantity of dietary fat and dimethylhydrazine in colon carcinogenesis in rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1976; 151(2): 237-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/00379727-151-39181] [PMID: 1250864]
[65] Reddy BS, Watanabe K, Weisburger JH. Effect of high-fat diet on colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats treated with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine, methylazoxymethanol acetate, or methylnitrosourea. Cancer Res 1977; 37(11): 4156-9.
[PMID: 908050]
[66] Nigro ND, Singh DV, Campbell RL, Sook M. Effect of dietary beef fat on intestinal tumor formation by azoxymethane in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1975; 54(2): 439-42.
[PMID: 1113326]
[67] Bull AW, Bronstein JC, Nigro ND. The essential fatty acid requirement for azoxymethane-induced intestinal carcinogenesis in rats. Lipids 1989; 24(4): 340-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02535174] [PMID: 2755311]
[68] Bansal BR, Rhoads JEJ Jr, Bansal SC. Effects of diet on colon carcinogenesis and the immune system in rats treated with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. Cancer Res 1978; 38(10): 3293-303.
[PMID: 688219]
[69] Schmähl D, Habs M, Habs H. Influence of a non-synthetic diet with a high fat content on the local occurrence of colonic carcinomas induced by N-nitroso-acetoxymethylmethylamine (AMMN) in Sprague-Dawley Rats. Hepatogastroenterology 1983; 30(1): 30-2.
[PMID: 6832697]
[70] Fujise T, Iwakiri R, Kakimoto T, et al. Long-term feeding of various fat diets modulates azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis through Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007; 292(4): G1150-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00269.2006] [PMID: 17194898]
[71] Wasan HS, Novelli M, Bee J, Bodmer WF. Dietary fat influences on polyp phenotype in multiple intestinal neoplasia mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94(7): 3308-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.7.3308] [PMID: 9096389]
[72] van Kranen HJ, van Iersel PW, Rijnkels JM, Beems DB, Alink GM, van Kreijl CF. Effects of dietary fat and a vegetable-fruit mixture on the development of intestinal neoplasia in the ApcMin mouse. Carcinogenesis 1998; 19(9): 1597-601.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/19.9.1597] [PMID: 9771930]
[73] Pettan-Brewer C, Morton J, Mangalindan R, Ladiges W. Curcumin suppresses intestinal polyps in APC Min mice fed a high fat diet. Pathobiol Aging Age Relat Dis 2011; 1: 1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/pba.v1i0.7013] [PMID: 22953026]
[74] Lafave LMZ, Kumarathasan P, Bird RP. Effect of dietary fat on colonic protein kinase C and induction of aberrant crypt foci. Lipids 1994; 29(10): 693-700.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02538913] [PMID: 7861936]
[75] Kristiansen E, Thorup I, Meyer O. Influence of different diets on development of DMH-induced aberrant crypt foci and colon tumor incidence in Wistar rats. Nutr Cancer 1995; 23(2): 151-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589509514371] [PMID: 7644384]
[76] Koohestani N, Tran TT, Lee W, Wolever TMS, Bruce WR. Insulin resistance and promotion of aberrant crypt foci in the colons of rats on a high-fat diet. Nutr Cancer 1997; 29(1): 69-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589709514604] [PMID: 9383787]
[77] Morotomi M, Sakaitani Y, Satou M, Takahashi T, Takagi A, Onoue M. Effects of a high-fat diet on azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt foci and fecal biochemistry and microbial activity in rats. Nutr Cancer 1997; 27(1): 84-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589709514507] [PMID: 8970188]
[78] Hambly RJ, Rumney CJ, Cunninghame M, Fletcher JM, Rijken PJ, Rowland IR. Influence of diets containing high and low risk factors for colon cancer on early stages of carcinogenesis in human flora-associated (HFA) rats. Carcinogenesis 1997; 18(8): 1535-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/18.8.1535] [PMID: 9276627]
[79] Baijal PK, Fitzpatrick DW, Bird RP. Comparative effects of secondary bile acids, deoxycholic and lithocholic acids, on aberrant crypt foci growth in the postinitiation phases of colon carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1998; 31(2): 81-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589809514685] [PMID: 9770718]
[80] Parnaud G, Peiffer G, Taché S, Corpet DE. Effect of meat (beef, chicken, and bacon) on rat colon carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1998; 32(3): 165-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589809514736] [PMID: 10050267]
[81] Wan G, Kato N, Watanabe H. High fat diet elevates the activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced aberrant crypt foci in colon of rats. Oncol Rep 2000; 7(2): 391-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/or.7.2.391] [PMID: 10671692]
[82] Liu Z, Uesaka T, Watanabe H, Kato N. High fat diet enhances colonic cell proliferation and carcinogenesis in rats by elevating serum leptin. Int J Oncol 2001; 19(5): 1009-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ijo.19.5.1009] [PMID: 11605002]
[83] Ju J, Liu Y, Hong J, Huang MT, Conney AH, Yang CS. Effects of green tea and high-fat diet on arachidonic acid metabolism and aberrant crypt foci formation in an azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis mouse model. Nutr Cancer 2003; 46(2): 172-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327914NC4602_10] [PMID: 14690793]
[84] Choi SY, Park JH, Kim JS, Kim MK, Aruoma OI, Sung MK. Effects of quercetin and beta-carotene supplementation on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis and inflammatory responses in rats fed with high-fat diet rich in omega-6 fatty acids. Biofactors 2006; 27(1-4): 137-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biof.5520270112] [PMID: 17012770]
[85] Sakaguchi M, Hiramatsu Y, Takada H, et al. Effect of dietary unsaturated and saturated fats on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats. Cancer Res 1984; 44(4): 1472-7.
[PMID: 6704963]
[86] Enos RT, Velázquez KT, McClellan JL, et al. High-fat diets rich in saturated fat protect against azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium-induced colon cancer. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2016; 310(11): G906-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00345.2015] [PMID: 27033117]
[87] Reddy BS, Maruyama H. Effect of dietary fish oil on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in male F344 rats. Cancer Res 1986; 46(7): 3367-70.
[PMID: 3708570]
[88] Reddy BS, Sugie S. Effect of different levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats. Cancer Res 1988; 48(23): 6642-7.
[PMID: 3180073]
[89] Minoura T, Takata T, Sakaguchi M, et al. Effect of dietary eicosapentaenoic acid on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats. Cancer Res 1988; 48(17): 4790-4.
[PMID: 2842039]
[90] Nelson RL, Tanure JC, Andrianopoulos G, Souza G, Lands WEM. A comparison of dietary fish oil and corn oil in experimental colorectal carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1988; 11(4): 215-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635588809513990] [PMID: 3217260]
[91] Latham P, Lund EK, Johnson IT. Dietary n-3 PUFA increases the apoptotic response to 1,2-dimethylhydrazine, reduces mitosis and suppresses the induction of carcinogenesis in the rat colon. Carcinogenesis 1999; 20(4): 645-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/20.4.645] [PMID: 10223194]
[92] Bartolí R, Fernández-Bañares F, Navarro E, et al. Effect of olive oil on early and late events of colon carcinogenesis in rats: Modulation of arachidonic acid metabolism and local prostaglandin E(2) synthesis. Gut 2000; 46(2): 191-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.46.2.191] [PMID: 10644312]
[93] Dommels YE, Heemskerk S, van den Berg H, Alink GM, van Bladeren PJ, van Ommen B. Effects of high fat fish oil and high fat corn oil diets on initiation of AOM-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci in male F344 rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2003; 41(12): 1739-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-6915(03)00201-1] [PMID: 14563399]
[94] Dwivedi C, Natarajan K, Matthees DP. Chemopreventive effects of dietary flaxseed oil on colon tumor development. Nutr Cancer 2005; 51(1): 52-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327914nc5101_8] [PMID: 15749630]
[95] Bommareddy A, Arasada BL, Mathees DP, Dwivedi C. Chemopreventive effects of dietary flaxseed on colon tumor development. Nutr Cancer 2006; 54(2): 216-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327914nc5402_8] [PMID: 16898866]
[96] van Beelen VA, Spenkelink B, Mooibroek H, et al. An n-3 PUFA-rich microalgal oil diet protects to a similar extent as a fish oil-rich diet against AOM-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci in F344 rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2009; 47(2): 316-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2008.11.014] [PMID: 19049816]
[97] Nowak J, Weylandt KH, Habbel P, et al. Colitis-associated colon tumorigenesis is suppressed in transgenic mice rich in endogenous n-3 fatty acids. Carcinogenesis 2007; 28(9): 1991-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgm166] [PMID: 17634405]
[98] Debruyne PR, Bruyneel EA, Li XD, Zimber A, Gespach C, Mareel MM. The role of bile acids in carcinogenesis. Mutat Res Fundam Mol Mech Mut 2001; 2001(480): 359-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0027-5107(01)00195-6]
[99] Reddy BS, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Colon cancer: Bile salts as tumor promoters.Carcinogenesis 1978; 453.
[100] Di Ciaula A, Wang DQ, Molina-Molina E, et al. Bile acids and cancer: Direct and environmental-dependent effects. Ann Hepatol 2017; 16(Suppl. 1: s3-105): s87-s105.
[101] Reddy BS, Narasawa T, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Promoting effect of sodium deoxycholate on colon adenocarcinomas in germfree rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1976; 56(2): 441-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/56.2.441] [PMID: 1255778]
[102] Reddy BS, Watanabe K, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Promoting effect of bile acids in colon carcinogenesis in germ-free and conventional F344 rats. Cancer Res 1977; 37(9): 3238-42.
[PMID: 884672]
[103] Narisawa T, Magadia NE, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Promoting effect of bile acids on colon carcinogenesis after intrarectal instillation of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 53(4): 1093-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/53.4.1093] [PMID: 4427390]
[104] Reddy BS, Mangat S, Sheinfil A, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL. Effect of type and amount of dietary fat and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine on biliary bile acids, fecal bile acids, and neutral sterols in rats. Cancer Res 1977; 37(7 Pt 1): 2132-7.
[PMID: 861940]
[105] Reddy BS, Hanson D, Mangat S, et al. Effect of high-fat, high-beef diet and of mode of cooking of beef in the diet on fecal bacterial enzymes and fecal bile acids and neutral sterols. J Nutr 1980; 110(9): 1880-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/110.9.1880] [PMID: 7411244]
[106] Glauert HP, Bennink MR. Influence of diet or intrarectal bile acid injections on colon epithelial cell proliferation in rats previously injected with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. J Nutr 1983; 113(3): 475-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/113.3.475] [PMID: 6298386]
[107] Gallaher DD, Franz PM. Effects of corn oil and wheat brans on bile acid metabolism in rats. J Nutr 1990; 120(11): 1320-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/120.11.1320] [PMID: 2172490]
[108] O’Keefe SJ. Diet, microorganisms and their metabolites, and colon cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016; 13(12): 691-706.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2016.165] [PMID: 27848961]
[109] Barnard ME, Boeke CE, Tamimi RM. Established breast cancer risk factors and risk of intrinsic tumor subtypes. Biochim Biophys Acta 2015; 1856(1): 73-85.
[PMID: 26071880]
[110] Kelsey JL, Berkowitz GS. Breast cancer epidemiology. Cancer Res 1988; 48(20): 5615-23.
[PMID: 3048646]
[111] Turner LB. A meta-analysis of fat intake, reproduction, and breast cancer risk: An evolutionary perspective. Am J Hum Biol 2011; 23(5): 601-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21176] [PMID: 21681848]
[112] Jones DY, Schatzkin A, Green SB, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I. Epidemiological followup study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987; 79(3): 465-71.
[PMID: 3476789]
[113] Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1987; 316(1): 22-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198701013160105] [PMID: 3785347]
[114] Mills PK, Beeson WL, Phillips RL, Fraser GE. Dietary habits and breast cancer incidence among Seventh-day Adventists. Cancer 1989; 64(3): 582-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19890801)64:3<582::AID-CNCR2820640304>3.0.CO;2-V] [PMID: 2743252]
[115] Knekt P, Albanes D, Seppänen R, et al. Dietary fat and risk of breast cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52(5): 903-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/52.5.903] [PMID: 2239766]
[116] Howe GR, Friedenreich CM, Jain M, Miller AB. A cohort study of fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991; 83(5): 336-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/83.5.336] [PMID: 1995917]
[117] Graham S, Zielezny M, Marshall J, et al. Diet in the epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in the New York State Cohort. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136(11): 1327-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116445] [PMID: 1336931]
[118] Kushi LH, Sellers TA, Potter JD, et al. Dietary fat and postmenopausal breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84(14): 1092-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/84.14.1092] [PMID: 1619683]
[119] Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. An 8-year follow-up. JAMA 1992; 268(15): 2037-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03490150089030] [PMID: 1328696]
[120] van den Brandt PA, van’t Veer P, Goldbohm RA, et al. A prospective cohort study on dietary fat and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1993; 53(1): 75-82.
[PMID: 8416752]
[121] Toniolo P, Riboli E, Shore RE, Pasternack BS. Consumption of meat, animal products, protein, and fat and risk of breast cancer: A prospective cohort study in New York. Epidemiology 1994; 5(4): 391-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199407000-00003] [PMID: 7918807]
[122] Gaard M, Tretli S, Løken EB. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer: A prospective study of 25,892 Norwegian women. Int J Cancer 1995; 63(1): 13-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.2910630104] [PMID: 7558440]
[123] Holmes MD, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, et al. Association of dietary intake of fat and fatty acids with risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1999; 281(10): 914-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.281.10.914] [PMID: 10078488]
[124] Velie E, Kulldorff M, Schairer C, Block G, Albanes D, Schatzkin A. Dietary fat, fat subtypes, and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: A prospective cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92(10): 833-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/92.10.833] [PMID: 10814679]
[125] Thiébaut AC, Clavel-Chapelon F. Fat consumption and breast cancer: Preliminary results from the E3N-Epic cohort. Bull Cancer 2001; 88(10): 954-8.
[PMID: 11713032]
[126] Terry P, Suzuki R, Hu FB, Wolk A. A prospective study of major dietary patterns and the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001; 10(12): 1281-5.
[PMID: 11751446]
[127] Byrne C, Rockett H, Holmes MD. Dietary fat, fat subtypes, and breast cancer risk: Lack of an association among postmenopausal women with no history of benign breast disease. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11(3): 261-5.
[PMID: 11895875]
[128] Kim EH, Willett WC, Colditz GA, et al. Dietary fat and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a 20-year follow-up. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 164(10): 990-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj309] [PMID: 16968865]
[129] Linos E, Willett WC, Cho E, Frazier L. Adolescent diet in relation to breast cancer risk among premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010; 19(3): 689-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-0802] [PMID: 20200427]
[130] Cho E, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, et al. Premenopausal fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95(14): 1079-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/95.14.1079] [PMID: 12865454]
[131] Wolk A, Bergström R, Hunter D, et al. A prospective study of association of monounsaturated fat and other types of fat with risk of breast cancer. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158(1): 41-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.1.41] [PMID: 9437377]
[132] Wirfält E, Mattisson I, Gullberg B, Johansson U, Olsson H, Berglund G. Postmenopausal breast cancer is associated with high intakes of omega6 fatty acids (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13(10): 883-93. [Sweden].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021922917489] [PMID: 12588084]
[133] Voorrips LE, Brants HA, Kardinaal AF, Hiddink GJ, van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA. Intake of conjugated linoleic acid, fat, and other fatty acids in relation to postmenopausal breast cancer: The Netherlands Cohort Study on Diet and Cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76(4): 873-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/76.4.873] [PMID: 12324303]
[134] Thiébaut AC, Kipnis V, Chang SC, et al. Dietary fat and postmenopausal invasive breast cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study cohort. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99(6): 451-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djk094] [PMID: 17374835]
[135] Löf M, Sandin S, Lagiou P, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the Swedish women’s lifestyle and health cohort. Br J Cancer 2007; 97(11): 1570-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6604033] [PMID: 17940510]
[136] Gago-Dominguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, Lee HP, Yu MC. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br J Cancer 2003; 89(9): 1686-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6601340] [PMID: 14583770]
[137] Horn-Ross PL, Hoggatt KJ, West DW, et al. Recent diet and breast cancer risk: the California Teachers Study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13(5): 407-15. [USA].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1015786030864] [PMID: 12146845]
[138] Holmes MD, Willett WC. Does diet affect breast cancer risk? Breast Cancer Res 2004; 6(4): 170-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/bcr909] [PMID: 15217490]
[139] Bingham SA, Luben R, Welch A, Wareham N, Khaw KT, Day N. Are imprecise methods obscuring a relation between fat and breast cancer? Lancet 2003; 362(9379): 212-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13913-X] [PMID: 12885485]
[140] Boeke CE, Eliassen AH, Chen WY, et al. Dietary fat intake in relation to lethal breast cancer in two large prospective cohort studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2014; 146(2): 383-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10549-014-3005-8] [PMID: 24894342]
[141] Farvid MS, Cho E, Chen WY, Eliassen AH, Willett WC. Premenopausal dietary fat in relation to pre- and post-menopausal breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2014; 145(1): 255-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10549-014-2895-9] [PMID: 24715379]
[142] Sczaniecka AK, Brasky TM, Lampe JW, Patterson RE, White E. Dietary intake of specific fatty acids and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women in the VITAL cohort. Nutr Cancer 2012; 64(8): 1131-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2012.718033] [PMID: 23137008]
[143] Murff HJ, Shu XO, Li H, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in Chinese women: A prospective cohort study. Int J Cancer 2011; 128(6): 1434-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25703] [PMID: 20878979]
[144] Prentice RL, Caan B, Chlebowski RT, et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of invasive breast cancer: The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 2006; 295(6): 629-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.6.629] [PMID: 16467232]
[145] Freedman LS, Clifford C, Messina M. Analysis of dietary fat, calories, body weight, and the development of mammary tumors in rats and mice: A review. Cancer Res 1990; 50(18): 5710-9.
[PMID: 2203521]
[146] Welsch CW. Review of the effects of dietary fat on experimental mammary gland tumorigenesis: Role of lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 18(4): 757-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0891-5849(94)00187-O] [PMID: 7750800]
[147] Fay MP, Freedman LS, Clifford CK, Midthune DN. Effect of different types and amounts of fat on the development of mammary tumors in rodents: A review. Cancer Res 1997; 57(18): 3979-88.
[PMID: 9307282]
[148] Cranford TL, Velazquez KT, Enos RT, et al. Effects of high fat diet-induced obesity on mammary tumorigenesis in the PyMT/MMTV murine model. Cancer Biol Ther 2018; 1-10.
[PMID: 30388923]
[149] Green JE, Hudson T. The promise of genetically engineered mice for cancer prevention studies. Nat Rev Cancer 2005; 5(3): 184-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc1565] [PMID: 15738982]
[150] Stark AH, Kossoy G, Zusman I, Yarden G, Madar Z. Olive oil consumption during pregnancy and lactation in rats influences mammary cancer development in female offspring. Nutr Cancer 2003; 46(1): 59-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327914NC4601_08] [PMID: 12925305]
[151] Lo CY, Hsieh PH, Chen HF, Su HM. A maternal high-fat diet during pregnancy in rats results in a greater risk of carcinogen-induced mammary tumors in the female offspring than exposure to a high-fat diet in postnatal life. Int J Cancer 2009; 125(4): 767-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.24464] [PMID: 19475675]
[152] de Oliveira Andrade F, Fontelles CC, Rosim MP, et al. Exposure to lard-based high-fat diet during fetal and lactation periods modifies breast cancer susceptibility in adulthood in rats. J Nutr Biochem 2014; 25(6): 613-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.02.002] [PMID: 24746835]
[153] Montales MT, Melnyk SB, Simmen FA, Simmen RC. Maternal metabolic perturbations elicited by high-fat diet promote Wnt-1-induced mammary tumor risk in adult female offspring via long-term effects on mammary and systemic phenotypes. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35(9): 2102-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgu106] [PMID: 24832086]
[154] Zhao Y, Tan YS, Aupperlee MD, et al. Pubertal high fat diet: Effects on mammary cancer development. Breast Cancer Res 2013; 15(5): R100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/bcr3561] [PMID: 24156623]
[155] Aupperlee MD, Zhao Y, Tan YS, et al. Puberty-specific promotion of mammary tumorigenesis by a high animal fat diet. Breast Cancer Res 2015; 17(1): 138.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13058-015-0646-4] [PMID: 26526858]
[156] MacLennan MB, Clarke SE, Perez K, et al. Mammary tumor development is directly inhibited by lifelong n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr Biochem 2013; 24(1): 388-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2012.08.002] [PMID: 23026490]
[157] Leslie MA, Abdelmagid SA, Perez K, Muller WJ, Ma DW. Mammary tumour development is dose-dependently inhibited by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the MMTV-neu(ndl)-YD5 transgenic mouse model. Lipids Health Dis 2014; 13: 96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-13-96] [PMID: 24916956]
[158] Liu J, Ma DW. The role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the prevention and treatment of breast cancer. Nutrients 2014; 6(11): 5184-223.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu6115184] [PMID: 25412153]
[159] Howe GR, Burch JD. Nutrition and pancreatic cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996; 7(1): 69-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00115639] [PMID: 8850436]
[160] Shen QW, Yao QY. Total fat consumption and pancreatic cancer risk: A meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Eur J Cancer Prev 2015; 24(4): 278-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000073] [PMID: 25089377]
[161] Yao X, Tian Z. Saturated, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Intake and Risk of Pancreatic Cancer: Evidence from Observational Studies. PLoS One 2015; 10(6)e0130870
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130870] [PMID: 26110621]
[162] Chen H, Qin S, Wang M, Zhang T, Zhang S. Association between cholesterol intake and pancreatic cancer risk: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 8243.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep08243] [PMID: 25649888]
[163] Wang J, Wang WJ, Zhai L, Zhang DF. Association of cholesterol with risk of pancreatic cancer: A meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21(12): 3711-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.i12.3711] [PMID: 25834340]
[164] Larsson SC, Wolk A. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Cancer 2012; 106(3): 603-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2011.585] [PMID: 22240790]
[165] Grippo PJ, Sandgren EP. Modeling pancreatic cancer in animals to address specific hypotheses.2005.
[166] Jimenez RE, Z’graggen K, Hartwig W, Graeme-Cook F, Warshaw AL, Fernandez-del Castillo C. Immunohistochemical characterization of pancreatic tumors induced by dimethylbenzanthracene in rats. Am J Pathol 1999; 154(4): 1223-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65374-6] [PMID: 10233860]
[167] Leach SD. Mouse models of pancreatic cancer: The fur is finally flying! Cancer Cell 2004; 5(1): 7-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00337-4] [PMID: 14749121]
[168] Hingorani SR, Petricoin EF, Maitra A, et al. Preinvasive and invasive ductal pancreatic cancer and its early detection in the mouse. Cancer Cell 2003; 4(6): 437-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00309-X] [PMID: 14706336]
[169] Hingorani SR, Wang L, Multani AS, et al. Trp53R172H and KrasG12D cooperate to promote chromosomal instability and widely metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma in mice. Cancer Cell 2005; 7(5): 469-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2005.04.023] [PMID: 15894267]
[170] Aguirre AJ, Bardeesy N, Sinha M, et al. Activated Kras and Ink4a/Arf deficiency cooperate to produce metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Genes Dev 2003; 17(24): 3112-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gad.1158703] [PMID: 14681207]
[171] Roebuck BD, Yager JD Jr, Longnecker DS. Dietary modulation of azaserine-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis in the rat. Cancer Res 1981; 41(3): 888-93.
[PMID: 7459874]
[172] Roebuck BD, Yager JD Jr, Longnecker DS, Wilpone SA. Promotion by unsaturated fat of azaserine-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis in the rat. Cancer Res 1981; 41(10): 3961-6.
[PMID: 7285004]
[173] Roebuck BD, Longnecker DS, Baumgartner KJ, Thron CD. Carcinogen-induced lesions in the rat pancreas: Effects of varying levels of essential fatty acid. Cancer Res 1985; 45(11 Pt 1): 5252-6.
[PMID: 3876880]
[174] Roebuck BD, Kaplita PV, Edwards BR, Praissman M. Effects of dietary fats and soybean protein on azaserine-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis and plasma cholecystokinin in the rat. Cancer Res 1987; 47(5): 1333-8.
[PMID: 3815341]
[175] O’Connor TP, Roebuck BD, Campbell TC. Dietary intervention during the postdosing phase of L-azaserine-induced preneoplastic lesions. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(5): 955-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/75.5.955] [PMID: 3863991]
[176] Roebuck BD. Effects of high levels of dietary fats on the growth of azaserine-induced foci in the rat pancreas. Lipids 1986; 21(4): 281-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02536413] [PMID: 3487020]
[177] Woutersen RA, van Garderen-Hoetmer A. Inhibition of dietary fat-promoted development of (pre)neoplastic lesions in exocrine pancreas of rats and hamsters by supplemental vitamins A, C and E. Cancer Lett 1988; 41(2): 179-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(88)90114-0] [PMID: 3401841]
[178] Woutersen RA, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Bax J, Scherer E. Modulation of dietary fat-promoted pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters by chronic ethanol ingestion. Carcinogenesis 1989; 10(3): 453-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/10.3.453] [PMID: 2924393]
[179] Woutersen RA, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Bax J, Scherer E. Modulation of dietary fat-promoted pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters by chronic coffee ingestion. Carcinogenesis 1989; 10(2): 311-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/10.2.311] [PMID: 2643485]
[180] Longnecker DS, Roebuck BD, Kuhlmann ET. Enhancement of pancreatic carcinogenesis by a dietary unsaturated fat in rats treated with saline or N-nitroso(2-hydroxypropyl)(2-oxopropyl)amine. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 74(1): 219-22.
[PMID: 3871493]
[181] Z’graggen K, Warshaw AL, Werner J, Graeme-Cook F, Jimenez RE, Fernández-Del Castillo C. Promoting effect of a high-fat/high-protein diet in DMBA-induced ductal pancreatic cancer in rats. Ann Surg 2001; 233(5): 688-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000658-200105000-00013] [PMID: 11323507]
[182] Birt DF, Salmasi S, Pour PM. Enhancement of experimental pancreatic cancer in Syrian golden hamsters by dietary fat. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981; 67(6): 1327-32.
[PMID: 6273636]
[183] Birt DF, Pour PM. Increased tumorigenesis induced by N-nitrosobis(2-oxopropyl)amine in Syrian golden hamsters fed high-fat diets. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983; 70(6): 1135-8.
[PMID: 6574283]
[184] Birt DF, Julius AD, White LT, Pour PM. Enhancement of pancreatic carcinogenesis in hamsters fed a high-fat diet ad libitum and at a controlled calorie intake. Cancer Res 1989; 49(21): 5848-51.
[PMID: 2790796]
[185] Birt DF, Julius AD, Dwork E, Hanna T, White LT, Pour PM. Comparison of the effects of dietary beef tallow and corn oil on pancreatic carcinogenesis in the hamster model. Carcinogenesis 1990; 11(5): 745-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/11.5.745] [PMID: 2335005]
[186] Herrington MK, Gasslander T, Cina RA, et al. Effects of high-fat diet and cholecystokinin receptor blockade on promotion of pancreatic ductal cell tumors in the hamster. Nutr Cancer 1997; 28(3): 219-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589709514580] [PMID: 9343829]
[187] Wenger FA, Jacobi CA, Kilian M, Zieren J, Zieren HU, Müller JM. Does dietary alpha-linolenic acid promote liver metastases in pancreatic carcinoma initiated by BOP in Syrian hamster? Ann Nutr Metab 1999; 43(2): 121-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000012776] [PMID: 10436311]
[188] Appel MJ, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Woutersen RA. Effects of dietary linoleic acid on pancreatic carcinogenesis in rats and hamsters. Cancer Res 1994; 54(8): 2113-20.
[PMID: 8174115]
[189] Cheon EC, Strouch MJ, Barron MR, et al. Alteration of strain background and a high omega-6 fat diet induces earlier onset of pancreatic neoplasia in EL-Kras transgenic mice. Int J Cancer 2011; 128(12): 2783-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25622] [PMID: 20725998]
[190] Dawson DW, Hertzer K, Moro A, et al. High-fat, high-calorie diet promotes early pancreatic neoplasia in the conditional KrasG12D mouse model. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2013; 6(10): 1064-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-13-0065] [PMID: 23943783]
[191] O’Connor TP, Roebuck BD, Peterson F, Campbell TC. Effect of dietary intake of fish oil and fish protein on the development of L-azaserine-induced preneoplastic lesions in the rat pancreas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(5): 959-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/75.5.959] [PMID: 3863992]
[192] O’Connor TP, Roebuck BD, Peterson FJ, Lokesh B, Kinsella JE, Campbell TC. Effect of dietary omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on development of azaserine-induced preneoplastic lesions in rat pancreas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1989; 81(11): 858-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/81.11.858] [PMID: 2724351]
[193] Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Modulation of growth and cell turnover of preneoplastic lesions and of prostaglandin levels in rat pancreas by dietary fish oil. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15(10): 2107-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/15.10.2107] [PMID: 7955040]
[194] Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Effects of dietary fish oil (MaxEPA) on N-nitrosobis(2-oxopropyl)amine (BOP)-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis in hamsters. Cancer Lett 1995; 94(2): 179-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(95)03848-Q] [PMID: 7634246]
[195] Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Dietary fish oil (MaxEPA) enhances pancreatic carcinogenesis in azaserine-treated rats. Br J Cancer 1996; 73(1): 36-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.1996.7] [PMID: 8554980]
[196] Appel MJ, Woutersen RA. Effects of a diet high in fish oil (MaxEPA) on the formation of micronucleated erythrocytes in blood and on the number of atypical acinar cell foci Induced in rat pancreas by azaserine. Nutr Cancer 2003; 47(1): 57-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327914nc4701_7] [PMID: 14769538]
[197] Heukamp I, Gregor JI, Kilian M, et al. Influence of different dietary fat intake on liver metastasis and hepatic lipid peroxidation in BOP-induced pancreatic cancer in Syrian hamsters. Pancreatology 2006; 6(1-2): 96-102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000090028] [PMID: 16327286]
[198] Strouch MJ, Ding Y, Salabat MR, et al. A high omega-3 fatty acid diet mitigates murine pancreatic precancer development. J Surg Res 2011; 165(1): 75-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2009.04.022] [PMID: 19631339]
[199] Eustis SL, Boorman GA. Proliferative lesions of the exocrine pancreas: Relationship to corn oil gavage in the National Toxicology Program. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(6): 1067-73.
[PMID: 3865010]
[200] Haseman JK, Huff JE, Rao GN, Arnold JE, Boorman GA, McConnell EE. Neoplasms observed in untreated and corn oil gavage control groups of F344/N rats and (C57BL/6N X C3H/HeN)F1 (B6C3F1) mice. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 75(5): 975-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/75.5.975] [PMID: 3863995]
[201] Matters GL, Cooper TK, McGovern CO, et al. Cholecystokinin mediates progression and metastasis of pancreatic cancer associated with dietary fat. Dig Dis Sci 2014; 59(6): 1180-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10620-014-3201-8] [PMID: 24817409]
[202] Yu M, Liu H, Duan Y, Zhang D, Li S, Wang F. Four types of fatty acids exert differential impact on pancreatic cancer growth. Cancer Lett 2015; 360(2): 187-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2015.02.002] [PMID: 25676690]
[203] Weisbeck A, Jansen RJ. Nutrients and the Pancreas: An Epigenetic Perspective. Nutrients 2017; 9(3): 9. [3].
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu9030283] [PMID: 28294968]
[204] Di Sebastiano KM, Mourtzakis M. The role of dietary fat throughout the prostate cancer trajectory. Nutrients 2014; 6(12): 6095-109.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu6126095] [PMID: 25533015]
[205] Ma RW, Chapman K. A systematic review of the effect of diet in prostate cancer prevention and treatment. J Hum Nutr Diet 2009; 22(3): 187-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-277X.2009.00946.x] [PMID: 19344379]
[206] Gathirua-Mwangi WG, Zhang J. Dietary factors and risk for advanced prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 2014; 23(2): 96-109.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0b013e3283647394] [PMID: 23872953]
[207] Lin PH, Aronson W, Freedland SJ. Nutrition, dietary interventions and prostate cancer: The latest evidence. BMC Med 2015; 13: 3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0234-y] [PMID: 25573005]
[208] Xu C, Han FF, Zeng XT, Liu TZ, Li S, Gao ZY. Fat intake is not linked to prostate cancer: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. PLoS One 2015; 10(7)e0131747
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131747] [PMID: 26186528]
[209] Zhou JR, Blackburn GL. Bridging animal and human studies: What are the missing segments in dietary fat and prostate cancer? Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66(6)(Suppl.): 1572S-80S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/66.6.1572S] [PMID: 9394717]
[210] Rose DP. Effects of dietary fatty acids on breast and prostate cancers: Evidence from in vitro experiments and animal studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66(6)(Suppl.): 1513S-22S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/66.6.1513S] [PMID: 9394709]
[211] Mori T, Imaida K, Tamano S, et al. Beef tallow, but not perilla or corn oil, promotion of rat prostate and intestinal carcinogenesis by 3,2′-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl. Jpn J Cancer Res 2001; 92(10): 1026-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1349-7006.2001.tb01056.x] [PMID: 11676852]
[212] Leung G, Benzie IF, Cheung A, Tsao SW, Wong YC. No effect of a high-fat diet on promotion of sex hormone-induced prostate and mammary carcinogenesis in the Noble rat model. Br J Nutr 2002; 88(4): 399-409.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/BJN2002673] [PMID: 12323089]
[213] Park SH, Chang SN, Baek MW, et al. Effects of dietary high fat on prostate intraepithelial neoplasia in TRAMP mice. Lab Anim Res 2013; 29(1): 39-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5625/lar.2013.29.1.39] [PMID: 23573107]
[214] Chang SN, Han J, Abdelkader TS, et al. High animal fat intake enhances prostate cancer progression and reduces glutathione peroxidase 3 expression in early stages of TRAMP mice. Prostate 2014; 74(13): 1266-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pros.22843] [PMID: 25053105]
[215] Cho HJ, Kwon GT, Park H, et al. A high-fat diet containing lard accelerates prostate cancer progression and reduces survival rate in mice: Possible contribution of adipose tissue-derived cytokines. Nutrients 2015; 7(4): 2539-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu7042539] [PMID: 25912035]
[216] Xu H, Hu MB, Bai PD, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines in prostate cancer development and progression promoted by high-fat diet. BioMed Res Int 2015; 2015249741
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/249741] [PMID: 25722971]
[217] Sarwar R, Pierce N, Koppe S. Obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Current perspectives. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2018; 11: 533-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/DMSO.S146339] [PMID: 30288073]
[218] Polyzos SA, Kountouras J, Mantzoros CS. Obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: From pathophysiology to therapeutics. Metabolism 2018.
[PMID: 30502373]
[219] Michelotti GA, Machado MV, Diehl AM. NAFLD, NASH and liver cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 10(11): 656-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2013.183] [PMID: 24080776]
[220] Bray GA, Paeratakul S, Popkin BM. Dietary fat and obesity: A review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies. Physiol Behav 2004; 83(4): 549-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.039] [PMID: 15621059]
[221] Hariri N, Thibault L. High-fat diet-induced obesity in animal models. Nutr Res Rev 2010; 23(2): 270-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954422410000168] [PMID: 20977819]
[222] Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. Trends in Obesity Among Adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA 2016; 315(21): 2284-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.6458] [PMID: 27272580]
[223] Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Ogden CL. Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity, and Extreme Obesity Among Adults Aged 20 and Over: United States, 1960–1962 Through 2013–2014. In: Survey DoHaNE, editor.: National Center for Health Statistics; 2016.
[224] Cohen E, Cragg M, deFonseka J, Hite A, Rosenberg M, Zhou B. Statistical review of US macronutrient consumption data, 1965-2011: Americans have been following dietary guidelines, coincident with the rise in obesity. Nutrition 2015; 31(5): 727-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2015.02.007] [PMID: 25837220]
[225] Pitot HC, Dragan YP. Chemical induction of hepatic neoplasia.The Liver: Biology and Pathobiology 3rd ed. 1994; 1467-95.
[226] Glauert HP, Robertson LW, Silberhorn EM. PCBs and tumor promotion.PCBs: Recent Advances in Environmental Toxicology and Health Effects 2001; 355-71.
[227] Pitot HC, Glauert HP, Hanigan M. The significance of selected biochemical markers in the characterization of putative initiated cell populations in rodent liver. Cancer Lett 1985; 29(1): 1-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(85)90116-8] [PMID: 2866027]
[228] Hendrich S, Campbell HA, Pitot HC. Quantitative stereological evaluation of four histochemical markers of altered foci in multistage hepatocarcinogenesis in the rat. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8(9): 1245-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/8.9.1245] [PMID: 2887301]
[229] Bannasch P, Enzmann H, Klimek F, Weber E, Zerban H. Significance of sequential cellular changes inside and outside foci of altered hepatocytes during hepatocarcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 1989; 17(4 Pt 1): 617-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192623389017004107] [PMID: 2697940]
[230] Harada T, Maronpot RR, Morris RW, Stitzel KA, Boorman GA. Morphological and stereological characterization of hepatic foci of cellular alteration in control Fischer 344 rats. Toxicol Pathol 1989; 17(4 Pt 1): 579-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192623389017004104] [PMID: 2483465]
[231] Emmelot P, Scherer E. The first relevant cell stage in rat liver carcinogenesis. A quantitative approach. Biochim Biophys Acta 1980; 605(2): 247-304.
[PMID: 6249366]
[232] Kunz HW, Tennekes HA, Port RE, Schwartz M, Lorke D, Schaude G. Quantitative aspects of chemical carcinogenesis and tumor promotion in liver. Environ Health Perspect 1983; 50: 113-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8350113] [PMID: 6223810]
[233] Calvisi DF, Thorgeirsson SS. Molecular mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis in transgenic mouse models of liver cancer. Toxicol Pathol 2005; 33(1): 181-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01926230590522095] [PMID: 15805070]
[234] Heindryckx F, Colle I, Van Vlierberghe H. Experimental mouse models for hepatocellular carcinoma research. Int J Exp Pathol 2009; 90(4): 367-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2613.2009.00656.x] [PMID: 19659896]
[235] Kline BE, Miller JA, Rusch HP, Baumann CA. Certain effects of dietary fats on the production of liver tumors in rats fed p-dimethylaminoazobenzene. Cancer Res 1946; 6: 5-7.
[PMID: 21008268]
[236] Sugai M, Witting LA, Tsuchiyama H, Kummerow FA. The effect of heated fat on the carcinogenic activity of 2-acetylaminofluorene. Cancer Res 1962; 22: 510-9.
[PMID: 13918175]
[237] McCay PB, King M, Rikans L, Pitha JV. Interactions between dietary fats and antioxidants on DMBA-induced hyperplastic nodules and hepatomas. J Environ Pathol Toxicol 1980; 3: 451-65.
[PMID: 6771359]
[238] Baldwin S, Parker RS. The effects of dietary fat and selenium on the development of preneoplastic lesions in rat liver. Nutr Cancer 1986; 8(4): 273-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635588609513904] [PMID: 2877443]
[239] Hietanen E, Bartsch H, Ahotupa M, et al. Mechanisms of fat-related modulation of N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced tumors in rats: Organ distribution, blood lipids, enzymes and pro-oxidant state. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12(4): 591-600.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/12.4.591] [PMID: 1672840]
[240] Miller JA, Kline BE, Rusch HP, Baumann CA. The carcinogenicity of p-dimethylaminoazobenzene in diets containing hydrogenated coconut oil. Cancer Res 1944; 4: 153-8.
[241] Miller JA, Kline BE, Rusch HP, Baumann CA. The effect of certain lipids on the carcinogenicity of p-dimethylaminoazobenzene. Cancer Res 1944; 4: 756-61.
[242] Misslbeck NG, Campbell TC, Roe DA. Effect of ethanol consumed in combination with high or low fat diets on the postinitiation phase of hepatocarcinogenesis in the rat. J Nutr 1984; 114(12): 2311-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/114.12.2311] [PMID: 6150073]
[243] Baldwin S, Parker RS. Influence of dietary fat and selenium in initiation and promotion of aflatoxin B1-induced preneoplastic foci in rat liver. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8(1): 101-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/8.1.101] [PMID: 2879648]
[244] Glauert HP, Pitot HC. Influence of dietary fat on the promotion of diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in female rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1986; 181(4): 498-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/00379727-181-42283] [PMID: 2869499]
[245] Sidransky H, Verney E, Wang D. Effects of varying fat content of a high tryptophan diet on the induction of gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase positive foci in the livers of rats treated with hepatocarcinogen. Cancer Lett 1986; 31(3): 235-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835(86)90143-6] [PMID: 2872955]
[246] Newberne PM, Weigert J, Kula N. Effects of dietary fat on hepatic mixed-function oxidases and hepatocellular carcinoma induced by aflatoxin B1 in rats. Cancer Res 1979; 39(10): 3986-91.
[PMID: 476638]
[247] Glauert HP, Lay LT, Kennan WS, Pitot HC. Effect of dietary fat on the initiation of hepatocarcinogenesis by diethylnitrosamine or 2-acetylaminofluorene in rats. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12(6): 991-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/12.6.991] [PMID: 1675161]
[248] Rahman KM, Sugie S, Tanaka T, Mori H, Reddy BS. Effect of types and amount of dietary fat during the initiation phase of hepatocarcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 2001; 39(2): 220-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327914nc392_10] [PMID: 11759284]
[249] Duan XY, Pan Q, Yan SY, Ding WJ, Fan JG, Qiao L. High-saturate-fat diet delays initiation of diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. BMC Gastroenterol 2014; 14: 195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12876-014-0195-9] [PMID: 25410681]
[250] Lieber CS, Leo MA, Mak KM, et al. Model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79(3): 502-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.3.502] [PMID: 14985228]
[251] Nakamura A, Tajima K, Zolzaya K, et al. Protection from non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and liver tumourigenesis in high fat-fed insulin receptor substrate-1-knockout mice despite insulin resistance. Diabetologia 2012; 55(12): 3382-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-012-2703-1] [PMID: 22955994]
[252] Wang Y, Ausman LM, Greenberg AS, Russell RM, Wang XD. Dietary lycopene and tomato extract supplementations inhibit nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-promoted hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Int J Cancer 2010; 126(8): 1788-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.24689] [PMID: 19551842]
[253] Wang Y, Ausman LM, Greenberg AS, Russell RM, Wang XD. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis induced by a high-fat diet promotes diethylnitrosamine-initiated early hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Int J Cancer 2009; 124(3): 540-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.23995] [PMID: 19004024]
[254] Granger RH, Blizzard L, Fryer JL, Dwyer T. Association between dietary fat and skin cancer in an Australian population using case-control and cohort study designs. BMC Cancer 2006; 6: 141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-6-141] [PMID: 16734890]
[255] Davies TW, Treasure FP, Welch AA, Day NE. Diet and basal cell skin cancer: Results from the EPIC-Norfolk cohort. Br J Dermatol 2002; 146(6): 1017-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04763.x] [PMID: 12072070]
[256] Gamba CS, Stefanick ML, Shikany JM, et al. Low-fat diet and skin cancer risk: The women’s health initiative randomized controlled dietary modification trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2013; 22(9): 1509-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-0341] [PMID: 23697610]
[257] Park MK, Li WQ, Qureshi AA, Cho E. Fat Intake and Risk of Skin Cancer in U.S. Adults. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2018; 27(7): 776-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-17-0782] [PMID: 29636341]
[258] Berenblum I, Shubik P. The role of croton oil applications, associated with a single painting of a carcinogen, in tumour induction of the mouse’s skin. Br J Cancer 1947; 1(4): 379-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.1947.35] [PMID: 18906315]
[259] Greenhalgh DA, Wang XJ, Roop DR. Multistage epidermal carcinogenesis in transgenic mice: Cooperativity and paradox. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 1996; 1(2): 162-76.
[PMID: 9627712]
[260] Humble MC, Trempus CS, Spalding JW, Cannon RE, Tennant RW. Biological, cellular, and molecular characteristics of an inducible transgenic skin tumor model: A review. Oncogene 2005; 24(56): 8217-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1209000] [PMID: 16355251]
[261] Watson AF, Mellanby E. Tar cancer in mice. II. The condition of the skin when modified by external treatment or diet, as a factor in influencing the cancerous reaction. Br J Exp Pathol 1930; 11: 311-22.
[262] Lavik PS, Baumann CA. Further studies on the tumor-promoting action of fat. Cancer Res 1943; 3: 749-56.
[263] Lavik PS, Baumann CA. Dietary fat and tumor formation. Cancer Res 1941; 1: 181-7.
[264] Jacobi HP, Baumann CA. The effect of fat on tumor formation. Am J Cancer 1940; 39: 338-42.
[265] Baumann CA, Jacobi HP, Rusch HP. The effect of diet on experimental tumor production. Am J Hyg 1939; 30A: 1-6.
[266] Tannenbaum A. The dependence of the genesis of induced skin tumors on the fat content of the diet during different stages of carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1944; 4: 683-7.
[267] Tannenbaum A. The genesis and growth of tumors. III. Effects of a high fat diet. Cancer Res 1942; 2: 468-75.
[268] Boutwell RK, Brush MK, Rusch HP. The stimulating effect of dietary fat on carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1949; 9(12): 741-6.
[PMID: 15395908]
[269] Mathews-Roth MM, Krinsky NI. Effect of dietary fat level on UV-B induced skin tumors, and anti-tumor action of beta-carotene. Photochem Photobiol 1984; 40(5): 671-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1984.tb05358.x] [PMID: 6514814]
[270] Vaid M, Singh T, Prasad R, Katiyar SK. Intake of high-fat diet stimulates the risk of ultraviolet radiation-induced skin tumors and malignant progression of papillomas to carcinoma in SKH-1 hairless mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2014; 274(1): 147-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2013.10.030] [PMID: 24211275]
[271] Black HS, Lenger W, Phelps AW, Thornby JI. Influence of dietary lipid upon ultraviolet-light carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1983; 5(2): 59-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635588309513780] [PMID: 6647039]
[272] Lou YR, Peng QY, Li T, et al. Effects of high-fat diets rich in either omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids on UVB-induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice. Carcinogenesis 2011; 32(7): 1078-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgr074] [PMID: 21525235]
[273] Qi M, Chen D, Liu K, Auborn KJ. n-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids increase skin but not cervical cancer in human papillomavirus 16 transgenic mice. Cancer Res 2002; 62(2): 433-6.
[PMID: 11809692]
[274] Holsti P. Tumor promoting effects of some long chain fatty acids in experimental skin carcinogenesis in the mouse. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 1959; 46(1): 51-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1959.tb00315.x] [PMID: 13669989]
[275] Birt DF, White LT, Choi B, Pelling JC. Dietary fat effects on the initiation and promotion of two-stage skin tumorigenesis in the SENCAR mouse. Cancer Res 1989; 49(15): 4170-4.
[PMID: 2472874]
[276] Birt DF, Pelling JC, Tibbels MG, Schweickert L. Acceleration of papilloma growth in mice fed high-fat diets during promotion of two-stage skin carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1989; 12(2): 161-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635588909514014] [PMID: 2496398]
[277] Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. The effect of the level of dietary corn oil on mouse skin carcinogenesis. Nutr Cancer 1991; 16(1): 1-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589109514135] [PMID: 1923905]
[278] Lo HH, Locniskar MF, Bechtel D, Fischer SM. Effects of type and amount of dietary fat on mouse skin tumor promotion. Nutr Cancer 1994; 22(1): 43-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589409514330] [PMID: 11304909]
[279] Birt DF, Barnett T, Pour PM, Copenhaver J. High-fat diet blocks the inhibition of skin carcinogenesis and reductions in protein kinase C by moderate energy restriction. Mol Carcinog 1996; 16(2): 115-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2744(199606)16:2<115::AID-MC8>3.0.CO;2-H] [PMID: 8645426]
[280] Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. Lack of a protective effect of menhaden oil on skin tumor promotion by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. Carcinogenesis 1990; 11(9): 1641-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/11.9.1641] [PMID: 2401054]
[281] Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. The effect of dietary lipid on skin tumor promotion by benzoyl peroxide: Comparison of fish, coconut and corn oil. Carcinogenesis 1991; 12(6): 1023-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/12.6.1023] [PMID: 1904320]
[282] Birt DF, Pelling JC, Anderson J, Barnett T. Consumption of reduced-energy/low-fat diet or constant-energy/high-fat diet during mezerein treatment inhibited mouse skin tumor promotion. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15(10): 2341-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/15.10.2341] [PMID: 7955075]
[283] Locniskar M, Belury MA, Cumberland AG, Patrick KE, Fischer SM. The effect of various dietary fats on skin tumor initiation. Nutr Cancer 1991; 16(3-4): 189-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589109514157] [PMID: 1670290]
[284] Berton TR, Fischer SM, Conti CJ, Locniskar MF. Comparison of ultraviolet light-induced skin carcinogenesis and ornithine decarboxylase activity in sencar and hairless SKH-1 mice fed a constant level of dietary lipid varying in corn and coconut oil. Nutr Cancer 1996; 26(3): 353-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589609514491] [PMID: 8910917]
[285] Ziegler RG, Mayne ST, Swanson CA. Nutrition and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996; 7(1): 157-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00115646] [PMID: 8850443]
[286] Alavanja MC, Field RW, Sinha R, et al. Lung cancer risk and red meat consumption among Iowa women. Lung Cancer 2001; 34(1): 37-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5002(01)00227-6] [PMID: 11557111]
[287] Mohr DL, Blot WJ, Tousey PM, Van Doren ML, Wolfe KW. Southern cooking and lung cancer. Nutr Cancer 1999; 35(1): 34-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S1532791434-43] [PMID: 10624704]
[288] De Stefani E, Deneo-Pellegrini H, Mendilaharsu M, Carzoglio JC, Ronco A. Dietary fat and lung cancer: A case-control study in Uruguay. Cancer Causes Control 1997; 8(6): 913-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1018424614723] [PMID: 9427434]
[289] Veierød MB, Laake P, Thelle DS. Dietary fat intake and risk of lung cancer: A prospective study of 51,452 Norwegian men and women. Eur J Cancer Prev 1997; 6(6): 540-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00008469-199712000-00009] [PMID: 9496456]
[290] Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary fat and risk of lung cancer in a pooled analysis of prospective studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11(10 Pt 1): 987-92.
[PMID: 12376497]
[291] Zhang YF, Lu J, Yu FF, Gao HF, Zhou YH. Polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and risk of lung cancer: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One 2014; 9(6)e99637
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099637] [PMID: 24925369]
[292] Beems RB, van Beek L. Modifying effect of dietary fat on benzo[a]pyrene-induced respiratory tract tumours in hamsters. Carcinogenesis 1984; 5(3): 413-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/5.3.413] [PMID: 6323047]
[293] Matsuda Y, Takeuchi H, Yokohira M, et al. Enhancing effects of a high fat diet on 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline-induced lung tumorigenesis in female A/J mice. Mol Med Rep 2009; 2(5): 701-6.
[PMID: 21475888]
[294] Takeuchi H, Saoo K, Yamakawa K, et al. Tumorigenesis of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), but not enhancing effects of concomitant high-fat diet, on lung carcinogenesis in female A/J mice. Oncol Lett 2010; 1(1): 137-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ol_00000025] [PMID: 22966271]
[295] Yan L, DeMars LC. Effects of dietary fat on spontaneous metastasis of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. Clin Exp Metastasis 2010; 27(8): 581-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10585-010-9347-7] [PMID: 20697780]
[296] Yan L, DeMars LC. Effects of a high-fat diet on spontaneous metastasis of Lewis lung carcinoma in plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 deficient and wild-type mice. PLoS One 2014; 9(10)e110869
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110869] [PMID: 25356654]
[297] Yan L, Combs GF Jr. Consumption of a high-fat diet abrogates inhibitory effects of methylseleninic acid on spontaneous metastasis of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35(10): 2308-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgu153] [PMID: 25053624]
[298] Jiang L, Hou R, Gong TT, Wu QJ. Dietary fat intake and endometrial cancer risk: Dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 16693.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep16693] [PMID: 26568366]
[299] Golabek T, Powroźnik J, Chłosta P, Dobruch J, Borówka A. The impact of nutrition in urogenital cancers. Arch Med Sci 2015; 11(2): 411-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2015.50973] [PMID: 25995760]
[300] Kushi LH, Mink PJ, Folsom AR, et al. Prospective study of diet and ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 149(1): 21-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009723] [PMID: 9883790]
[301] Pan SY, Ugnat AM, Mao Y, Wen SW, Johnson KC. A case-control study of diet and the risk of ovarian cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004; 13(9): 1521-7.
[PMID: 15342455]
[302] Zhang M, Yang ZY, Binns CW, Lee AH. Diet and ovarian cancer risk: A case-control study in China. Br J Cancer 2002; 86(5): 712-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6600085] [PMID: 11875731]
[303] Bertone ER, Rosner BA, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary fat intake and ovarian cancer in a cohort of US women. Am J Epidemiol 2002; 156(1): 22-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf008] [PMID: 12076885]
[304] Risch HA, Jain M, Marrett LD, Howe GR. Dietary fat intake and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994; 86(18): 1409-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/86.18.1409] [PMID: 8072035]
[305] Genkinger JM, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, et al. A pooled analysis of 12 cohort studies of dietary fat, cholesterol and egg intake and ovarian cancer. Cancer Causes Control 2006; 17(3): 273-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10552-005-0455-7] [PMID: 16489535]
[306] Blank MM, Wentzensen N, Murphy MA, Hollenbeck A, Park Y. Dietary fat intake and risk of ovarian cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Br J Cancer 2012; 106(3): 596-602.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2011.572] [PMID: 22223086]
[307] Merritt MA, Riboli E, Weiderpass E, et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Cancer Epidemiol 2014; 38(5): 528-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2014.07.011] [PMID: 25155210]
[308] Merritt MA, Cramer DW, Missmer SA, Vitonis AF, Titus LJ, Terry KL. Dietary fat intake and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer by tumour histology. Br J Cancer 2014; 110(5): 1392-401.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2014.16] [PMID: 24473401]
[309] Chang ET, Lee VS, Canchola AJ, et al. Diet and risk of ovarian cancer in the California Teachers Study cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2007; 165(7): 802-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwk065] [PMID: 17210953]
[310] Wolfgarten E, Rosendahl U, Nowroth T, et al. Coincidence of nutritional habits and esophageal cancer in Germany. Onkologie 2001; 24(6): 546-51.
[PMID: 11799309]
[311] O’Doherty MG, Cantwell MM, Murray LJ, Anderson LA, Abnet CC, Group FS. Dietary fat and meat intakes and risk of reflux esophagitis, Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Int J Cancer 2011; 129(6): 1493-502.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.26108] [PMID: 21455992]
[312] World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective 1997.
[313] World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective 2007.
[314] Chao A, Thun MJ, Connell CJ, et al. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA 2005; 293(2): 172-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.2.172] [PMID: 15644544]
Track Your Manuscript:


Endorsements



"Open access will revolutionize 21st century knowledge work and accelerate the diffusion of ideas and evidence that support just in time learning and the evolution of thinking in a number of disciplines."


Daniel Pesut
(Indiana University School of Nursing, USA)

"It is important that students and researchers from all over the world can have easy access to relevant, high-standard and timely scientific information. This is exactly what Open Access Journals provide and this is the reason why I support this endeavor."


Jacques Descotes
(Centre Antipoison-Centre de Pharmacovigilance, France)

"Publishing research articles is the key for future scientific progress. Open Access publishing is therefore of utmost importance for wider dissemination of information, and will help serving the best interest of the scientific community."


Patrice Talaga
(UCB S.A., Belgium)

"Open access journals are a novel concept in the medical literature. They offer accessible information to a wide variety of individuals, including physicians, medical students, clinical investigators, and the general public. They are an outstanding source of medical and scientific information."


Jeffrey M. Weinberg
(St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, USA)

"Open access journals are extremely useful for graduate students, investigators and all other interested persons to read important scientific articles and subscribe scientific journals. Indeed, the research articles span a wide range of area and of high quality. This is specially a must for researchers belonging to institutions with limited library facility and funding to subscribe scientific journals."


Debomoy K. Lahiri
(Indiana University School of Medicine, USA)

"Open access journals represent a major break-through in publishing. They provide easy access to the latest research on a wide variety of issues. Relevant and timely articles are made available in a fraction of the time taken by more conventional publishers. Articles are of uniformly high quality and written by the world's leading authorities."


Robert Looney
(Naval Postgraduate School, USA)

"Open access journals have transformed the way scientific data is published and disseminated: particularly, whilst ensuring a high quality standard and transparency in the editorial process, they have increased the access to the scientific literature by those researchers that have limited library support or that are working on small budgets."


Richard Reithinger
(Westat, USA)

"Not only do open access journals greatly improve the access to high quality information for scientists in the developing world, it also provides extra exposure for our papers."


J. Ferwerda
(University of Oxford, UK)

"Open Access 'Chemistry' Journals allow the dissemination of knowledge at your finger tips without paying for the scientific content."


Sean L. Kitson
(Almac Sciences, Northern Ireland)

"In principle, all scientific journals should have open access, as should be science itself. Open access journals are very helpful for students, researchers and the general public including people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals. The articles are high standard and cover a wide area."


Hubert Wolterbeek
(Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands)

"The widest possible diffusion of information is critical for the advancement of science. In this perspective, open access journals are instrumental in fostering researches and achievements."


Alessandro Laviano
(Sapienza - University of Rome, Italy)

"Open access journals are very useful for all scientists as they can have quick information in the different fields of science."


Philippe Hernigou
(Paris University, France)

"There are many scientists who can not afford the rather expensive subscriptions to scientific journals. Open access journals offer a good alternative for free access to good quality scientific information."


Fidel Toldrá
(Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos, Spain)

"Open access journals have become a fundamental tool for students, researchers, patients and the general public. Many people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals benefit of them on a daily basis. The articles are among the best and cover most scientific areas."


M. Bendandi
(University Clinic of Navarre, Spain)

"These journals provide researchers with a platform for rapid, open access scientific communication. The articles are of high quality and broad scope."


Peter Chiba
(University of Vienna, Austria)

"Open access journals are probably one of the most important contributions to promote and diffuse science worldwide."


Jaime Sampaio
(University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal)

"Open access journals make up a new and rather revolutionary way to scientific publication. This option opens several quite interesting possibilities to disseminate openly and freely new knowledge and even to facilitate interpersonal communication among scientists."


Eduardo A. Castro
(INIFTA, Argentina)

"Open access journals are freely available online throughout the world, for you to read, download, copy, distribute, and use. The articles published in the open access journals are high quality and cover a wide range of fields."


Kenji Hashimoto
(Chiba University, Japan)

"Open Access journals offer an innovative and efficient way of publication for academics and professionals in a wide range of disciplines. The papers published are of high quality after rigorous peer review and they are Indexed in: major international databases. I read Open Access journals to keep abreast of the recent development in my field of study."


Daniel Shek
(Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong)

"It is a modern trend for publishers to establish open access journals. Researchers, faculty members, and students will be greatly benefited by the new journals of Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. in this category."


Jih Ru Hwu
(National Central University, Taiwan)


Browse Contents




Webmaster Contact: info@benthamopen.net
Copyright © 2023 Bentham Open